GIFT  OF 


TEACHING  CHILDREN 
TO  READ 


BT 

PAUL  KLAPPER,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION 
COLLEGE   OF  THE   CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 


NEW  YORK 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

1920 


COPYRIGHT,  19x4,  igi6,  BX 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


GIF1       fl      /1  7'°  '  ^  }     C^^-2    iX 


FOREWORD 

The  author  feels  impelled  to  set  forth  the  purpose  and 
the  scope  of  this  volume,  lest  the  student  of  education  in 
search  of  new  theories  and  experimentations  in  the  physi- 
ology and  the  psychology  of  reading,  be  led  astray.  This 
book  is  given  solely  to  the  task  of  aiding  teachers,  who  are 
seeking  a  method  that  has  stood  the  pragmatic  test,  and 
that  may,  therefore,  help  them  in  their  day's  work.  The 
author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the  large  number 
of  teachers  from  whose  methods  of  instruction,  he  has 
gleaned  much  that  is  practical  in  this  volume. 


425474 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGX 

I.     THE   MEANING   AND  THE   PROBLEMS   OF  THE 

TEACHING  OF  READING  .....  i 

II.    PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE  OF  READING    .        .  7 

III.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  READING  ...»  17 

IV.  PEDAGOGY  OF  READING 27 

A.  When  Shall  Reading  Be  Taught?      .  27 

B.  Basic  Aims  in  Reading      ...  32 

V.     THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING     .  36 

Evolution    of    Modern   Methods   of   Pri- 
mary* Reading  36 

The  Synthetic  Methods     ....  37 

The  Analytic  Methods       ....  43 

VI.     SPECIAL     MODERN     METHODS     OF     PRIMARY 

READING 58 

VII.     THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  PRIMARY  READING  .  82 

A.  The  Primer 82 

B.  Reading   to    Pupils        ....  89 

C.  Telling  Stories  to  Children  ...  92. 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

VIII.     PHONICS:   THE  STUDY  OF  SOUND  PRODUCTION  102 

IX.     READING   IN   THE   INTERMEDIARY   GRADES       .  125 
(The  Third  Year  through  the  Sixth  Year) 

X.     THE   TEACHING   OF  A   MASTERPIECE       .        .159 

APPENDIX:      Recent    Methods    of    Teaching 

Reading  to  Beginners 206 

INDEX         ........  237 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  MEANING  AND  THE  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  TEACHING 
OF  READING 

Reading  Essentially  a  Problem  of  Thought  Acquisition. 
• — The  word  "Reading"  is  traced  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
"raedon,"  which  means  "to  advise."  "Raedon"  re- 
ferred to  the  process  of  searching  in  books  (of  bark) 
for  counsel.  The  Latin  "lego"  means  "to  gather," 
hence  the  derived  meaning  "to  gather  ideas  from  writ- 
ten sources."  These  etymological  definitions,  crude 
and  far  from  the  vital  problems  that  must  be  solved 
in  teaching  children  to  read,  nevertheless  reflect  the 
essence  of  the  function  of  reading,  viz.,  "to  impart 
ideas,  thoughts,  inspirations."  To  the  ancients,  reading 
was  a  "mysterie,"  a  magic  art,  understood  by  the  sha- 
mans and  the  medicine  men.  Although  the  ability  to 
read  is  today  part  of  every  citizen's  educational  right, 
we  must,  however,  realize  that  it  is  none  the  less  a 
"mysterie,"  when  we  consider  what  a  complex  psycho- 
physiological  process  it  is.  How  can  a  collection  of 
symbols,  static  and  formal  themselves,  arouse  dynamic 
thought  and  living  inspiration  in  the  mind  of  the 
child? 

The  Elements  of  Beading.— i.  To  Extract  Thought. — 


TEACHING.  CHIT-JDREN  TO  READ 

As  far  as  the  classroom  is  concerned,  reading  must 
discharge  certain  definite  functions.  We  must  con- 
sider these  before  we  discuss  methodology  in  reading, 
for  they  indicate  the  goal  of  all  method.  Classroom 
reading  must  seek  to  develop  first,  in  each  child,  the 
ability  to  extract  thought  from  the  printed  page. 
Since  this  is  essentially  the  object  of  reading  in  after 
life,  it  must  become  the  governing  aim  of  the  teacher's 
endeavors.  All  other  aims,  such  as  pronunciation,  ex- 
pression, language,  diction,  must  be  subordinated  to 
reading  for  thought. 

2.  Proper  Vocalization. — The  second  function  of 
classroom  reading  is  to  develop  the  ability  to  properly 
vocalize,  in  the  words  of  the  author,  the  thought  that 
was  gained;  in  other  words,  the  ability  to  read  with 
accurate  enunciation,  clear  articulation,  and  convincing 
expression.  Here  is  posited  a  secondary  aim  of  read- 
ing, which,  however  necessary  in  the  classroom,  forms 
no  part  of  the  reading  of  after  life.  The  teacher  finds 
this  added  function  of  reading  exceedingly  vital.  Un- 
less the  child  has  proper  vocalization  how  can  she  test 
his  ability  to  recognize  symbols,  to  speak  articulately, 
to  utter  thought  expressively?  Through  the  oral  ren- 
dition the  teacher  even  learns  whether  the  child  has  the 
author's  thought  and  responds  to  the  emotional  appeal. 
But,  in  after  life,  the  sole  function  of  reading  is  the 
acquisition  of  thought,  while  proper  oral  reading  is 
regarded  as  a  delightful  accomplishment.  In  the  final 
analysis,  reading  is  a  means  of  gaining  thought,  while 
oral  reading  is  a  means  of  expressing  thought. 

2 


MEANING  AND   PROBLEMS 

3.  Literary  Appreciation. — But  a  course  of  study 
in  reading,  the  aims  of  which  do  not  transcend  thought 
acquisition  and  thought  expression,  fails  in  its  most 
vital  function.  It  must  strive  to  develop,  in  addition, 
an  appreciation  of  the  best  in  literature.  Reading 
that  does  not  accomplish  this  end  is  sterile  in  those 
endeavors  in  which  it  ought  to  be  most  productive. 
We  have  left  behind  the  formal  conception  of  educa- 
tion which  holds  that  the  school  must  give  only  the 
symbols  of  knowledge.  With  such  an  aim  in  elemen- 
tary education  reading  is  complete  that  teaches 
how  to  gain  thought  and  vocalize  it  correctly.  But 
the  scope  of  education,  even  of  elementary  grade,  must 
be  more  liberal.  It  must  be  cultural  and  inspirational. 
No  school  subject  is  so  well  adapted  to  develop  this 
spirit  as  reading.  It  introduces  the  child  to  the  best 
thoughts  and  ideals  in  the  life  of  the  race.  Its  subject- 
matter,  literature,  should  stimulate  the  finer  emotions, 
train  the  imagination,  and  develop  the  aesthetic  sense. 
A  school  course  in  reading  which  discharges  these 
functions  has  fulfiled  its  raison  d'etre,  for  it  has  given 
the  child  the  most  effective  instrument  for  self-culture 
and  character  development.  This  literary  ideal  should 
determine  the  choice  of  subject-matter  from  the  very 
first  grade.  The  school  primer,  whose  inspirational 
appeal  is  summed  up  in  "See  the  black  cat!",  "What 
ails  the  lock?",  must  rapidly  become  a  relic  of  past 
pedagogical  practice. 

Charles  William  Eliot,  of  Harvard  University, 
voices  the  ultimate  end  of  reading  in  the  school  when 

3 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

he  tells  us,  "From  the  total  training  during  childhood, 
there  should  result  in  the  child  a  taste  for  interesting 
and  improving  reading,  which  should  direct  and  in- 
spire its  subsequent  intellectual  life.  That  schooling 
which  results  in  this  taste  for  good  reading,  however 
unsystematic  and  eccentric  that  schooling  may  have 
been,  has  achieved  a  main  end  of  elementary  educa- 
tion; and  that  schooling  which  has  not  succeeded  in 
implanting  this  permanent  taste  has  failed.  Guided 
and  animated  by  this  impulse  to  acquire  knowledge 
and  exercise  his  imagination  through  reading,  the  in- 
dividual will  continue  to  exercise  himself  all  through 
life."  G.  Stanley  Hall  reenforces  this  statement  with, 
"The  prime  object  of  the  reading  series  should  not 
be  the  cultivation  of  the  art  of  reading,  nor  training 
to  good  style,  nor  grammatical  or  linguistic  drill,  im- 
portant as  these  are,  but  the  development  of  a  living 
appreciation  of  good  literature  and  the  habit  of  read- 
ing it,  rather  than  bad  literature,  for  with  this  end  all 
others  are  secured." 

The  Problems  in  Teaching  Children  to  Bead With 

this  view  of  the  function  of  reading,  what  are  the 
problems  that  confront  us  in  teaching  this  art  of 
thought  acquisition?  To  begin  with,  we  must  look 
upon  reading  as  a  physiological  process,  for  we  must 
know  how  these  symbols  give  rise  to  images  on  the 
retina,  how  the  eye  moves  over  this  series  of  symbols, 
the  strain  that  is  experienced,  the  causes  of  fatigue  and 
the  conditions  governing  accurate  and  rapid  visual 
grasp.  Reading  must  be  looked  upon,  secondly,  as  a 

4 


MEANING  AND   PROBLEMS 

psychological  process f  for  the  vital  questions  here  are : 
"How  are  these  visual  symbols  interpreted  into 
thought?"  "How  can  speed  and  accuracy  of  this  in- 
terpretation be  promoted?"  And,  finally,  we  must 
regard  reading  from  its  pedagogical  aspect,  for  the 
teaching  problems  are  many.  Reading  is  an  artificial 
process  with  artificial  symbols.  How  shall  it  be  made 
natural  to  the  child?  What  means  of  motivation  shall 
we  use?  Of  the  imposing  array  of  methods  in  read- 
ing which  shall  we  select,  and  what  shall  be  the  princi- 
ple of  choice?  Should  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  class- 
room reading  be  oral,  if  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the 
reading  of  later  life  is  silent?  Will  this  training  in 
oral  reading  make  us  proficient  in  silent  reading? 
Should  we  train  pupils  to  read  slowly  and  orally  in 
the  classroom,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  reading  of 
mature  life  is  visual  and  rapid?  Does  the  slow  oral 
reading  of  the  classroom  prepare  for  the  rapid  visual 
reading  of  later  days?  Is  that  recitation  in  reading 
efficient  which  requires  that  all  children  rivet  their 
eyes  on  a  single  paragraph  as  some  unfortunate  victim 
labors  through  it?  Each  error  makes  the  pupil  more 
self-conscious  and  less  able  to  perform  the  task.  What 
do  the  other  children  learn  ?  How  much  reading  does 
a  child  learn  by  listening  to  others  read,  even  though 
they  be  good  readers?  These  are  a  few  of  a  host  of 
problems  that  arise  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject. 
Their  answers  are  vital  and  make  up  the  pedagogy  of 
reading.  The  reader's  attention  is  therefore  invited 
to  three  successive  phases  of  the  subject,  which  are 

5 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

treated  in  the  chapters  entitled,  "The  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  of  Reading/'  "The  Psychology  of  Reading," 
and  "The  Pedagogy  of  Reading." 


SUGGESTED  READING1 

ARNOLD,  SARAH  L.  Learning  to  Read.  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co. 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.  The  Teaching  of  Eng- 
lish, 66-75.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

COLBY,  J.  R.  Literature  and  Life  in  the  School.  Hough- 
ton  Mifflin  Co. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  EDWIN.  Method  and  Methods  in  the 
Teaching  of  English,  chap.  I.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

HUEY,  EDMUND  B.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of 
Reading,  chap.  I.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

LAING,  MARY  E.  Reading ;  A  Manual  for  Teachers,  chap. 
XXL  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

McCLiNTOCK,  P.  L.  Literature  in  the  Elementary 
School.  University  of  Chicago  Press. 

1  The  bibliographies  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  not  exhaus- 
tive. The  aim  is,  rather,  to  suggest  such  reading  as  will  am- 
plify and  elaborate  the  various  phases  of  the  subject  treated  in 
each  chapter.  Where  the  publisher  is  not  mentioned,  the  reader 
will  find  the  book  or  the  reference  listed  at  the  end  of  a  previous 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  II 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE  OF  READING 

Processes  in  Oral  Reading. — An  analysis  of  the  proc- 
esses in  oral  reading  will  readily  show  the  teacher  that 
they  can  be  summed  up  under  four  heads.  It  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  first  must  be  visual  images  of  the  words 
in  the  text.  Just  as  soon  as  these  are  formed  they 
call  up  automatically  the  second,  auditory  images  of 
these  same  words.  The  mind  hears  the  sounds  of 
the  words.  These  auditory  images,  in  their  turn, 
prompt  the  third,  vocal  motor  images.  The  organs 
used  in  sound  production  seem  to  be  set  in  motion  by 
an  imperative  command  and  the  sounds  are  produced. 
But  words  have  meaning,  hence  we  find,  in  the  fourth 
place,  ideas  and  imagery  arising  from  a  central  thought 
process.  In  the  discussion  of  the  physiology  of  read- 
ing we  must  begin  with  the  first  of  these  problems, 
viz.,  the  formation  of  visual  images.  The  others  will 
be  treated  in  the  following  chapter,  "The  Psychology 
of  Reading." 

Eye  Movement  in  Beading. — We  must  first  note  care- 
fully that  the  eye,  contrary  to  the  layman's  impression, 
does  not  move  across  the  line  at  a  uniform  rate,  but 
rather  in  jerks  or  short  sweeps,  pausing  at  regular  in- 
tervals at  points  on  the  line.  The  movement  of  the 
eye  in  reading  may  be  graphically  represented  thus: 

7 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO  READ 
i  i  111 


2 

2                        22 

111 

1                       I                    1 

2                              22 

2                      2 

111                  1 

111 

22  22  2 


CHART  A. — Diagrammatic  representation  of  eye-sweeps  (i)  and 
pauses  (2)  of  four  people  reading  a  line  of  about  three  inches. 

It  is  also  important  to  note  when  the  actual  reading 
takes  place,  whether  during  the  movement  or  during 
the  pause.  Through  careful  experimentation  we  find 
that  reading  takes  place  during  the  pauses,  not  dur- 
ing the  sweeps  or  glances. 

o-4 t-h-o   [clyc Ut  I    re  a  dlllo  g- 

21  i  V 


..  Movcm  eP-jH — o-f* — t-h  e     ejyje       in     rood»og 

CHART  B.— Actual  eye-sweeps  (i)  and  pauses  (2)  of  same  four 
people  reading  same  line. 

8 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE   OF   READING 

Practical  Importance  of  Eye  Movement  in  Beading. 
— This  physiological  fact  is  important,  because  it  helps 
us  to  realize  what  a  fatiguing  process  reading  really  is 
for  the  child.  The  average  person  reads  an  ordinary 
page  in  two  or  three  minutes.  To  do  this  about  150 
of  these  eye  movements  are  necessary.  Let  us  try  to 
move  a  finger  or  a  hand  150  times  in  so  short  a  given 
time  and  then  note  carefully  the  fatigue  that  is  experi- 
enced. This  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  severe  strain  to 
which  the  eye  is  subjected  continuously.  It  shows  us 
that  the  eye  is  an  organ  designed  primarily  for  the 
sight  that  must  be  achieved  in  rudimentary  society,  yet 
doing  twentieth  century  work.  As  the  book  is  brought 
nearer  the  eye  the  number  of  sweeps  over  each  line 
decreases,  and  more  is  caught  at  a  glance,  but  as  the 
page  recedes  from  the  eye  the  number  of  sweeps  in- 
creases. The  page,  kept  at  a  proper  distance  from  the 
eye,  therefore  makes  a  greater  drain  upon  the  energy 
of  the  eye,  and  the  child,  instinctively  seeking  relief, 
brings  the  page  nearer  and  nearer,  until  myopia, 
"shortsightedness,"  sets  in.  The  teacher  must  realize 
how  much  care  must  constantly  be  exercised  if  chil- 
dren are  to  be  kept  free  from  eye  ailments  that  follow 
in  the  wake  of  reading  and  study. 

Regularity  of  Eye  Movement  Determines  Ease  in  Read- 
ing. — A  second  important  matter  in  this  connection  is 
the  fact  that  ease  in  reading  is  produced  by  motor  hob- 
its  of  breaking  the  lines  into  a  given  number  of  regular 
pauses  and  moves,  each  line  showing  the  same  number 
of  stops  and  sweeps.  Lines  on  a  page  should  therefore 

9 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

be  uniform  in  length  and  rather  short.  But  a  cursory 
examination  of  the  average  popular  primer  shows  that 
this  rule  is  honored  more  in  the  breach  than  in  the 
observance.  Irregular  and  broken  lines  seem  to  be 
the  general  law  on  pages  enlivened  by  pictures.  What 
is  the  invariable  result?  The  eye  is  fatigued  by  the 
necessity  of  readjusting  itself  to  a  new  set  of  moves 
and  pauses  with  each  varying  set  of  lines.  The  sooner 
one  acquires  a  rhythmical  movement  the  surer  is  he 
to  read  with  ease,  speed,  and  minimum  fatigue. 
Hence,  the  ideal  page  has  lines  of  uniform  length — 
one  and  one-third  times  that  of  the  average  newspaper 
line,  or  75  to  80  mm. 

Limited  Length  of  Eye  Sweeps. — Since  this  rhythm 
of  movement  and  periodical  pauses  causes  such  eye 
fatigue,  we  naturally  ask,  "Why  not  increase  the 
sweep  until  it  includes  the  whole  line?"  This  is  im- 
possible, for  the  field  of  vision  is  naturally  very  lim- 
ited. For  those  who  are  not  aware  of  how  limited  it 
is,  a  surprise  is  in  store.  Let  them  select  any  letter  or 
small  word  on  the  page  and  fix  the  eye  upon  it,  then 
try  to  name  the  surrounding  letters  or  words.  In  non- 
sense syllables  four  letters  are  usually  caught  in  one 
sweep,  while  seven  is  an  exceptional  number.  When 
the  letters  form  words  sixteen  to  twenty  can  be  caught 
at  once.  In  reading  ordinary  prose  four  to  six  words 
are  included  in  one  sweep.  The  obvious  generalization 
is  therefore:  the  greater  the  rational  association  the 
more  we  seem  to  acquire  in  a  limited  time,  and  the 
fewer  are  the  eye  sweeps  per  line.  It  is  therefore  nec- 

10 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE   OF   READING 

essary  to  differentiate  between  what  the  eye  actually 
sees  and  what  the  mind  contributes  in  all  reading. 
This  difference  will  receive  more  careful  consideration 
in  the  next  chapter,  "The  Psychology  of  Reading." 

Importance  of  the  Problem  of  Optic  Fatigue. — The 
teacher  must  be  familiar  with  these  physiological  phe- 
nomena of  eye  movement  in  reading,  because  any 
practice  which  operates  counter  to  the  natural  move- 
ments of  the  eye  causes  reading  fatigue,  and  brings 
with  it  dangers  that  are  severe  and  far-reaching.  It 
is  a  common  experience  of  the  nerve  specialist  to  find 
that  optic  fatigue  most  surely  becomes  general  nerve 
fatigue.  Optic  fatigue  brings  in  its  wake  sick  head- 
ache, dizziness,  digestive  disturbances,  general  debility, 
and  irritability.  Serious  nervous  disorders  may  have 
their  origin  in  optic  fatigue.  "Eye  strain  is  in  closest 
relation  to  nerve  strain  .  .  .  we  seldom  or  never  have 
the  former  without  the  latter."  When  one  is  physi- 
cally tired  he  cannot  read.  He  can  listen  to  music, 
follow  a  discussion,  and  even  argue  a  point,  but  he 
turns  instinctively  from  a  book.  Long  reading 
makes  one  physically  tired,  because  of  the  constant 
nervous  drain  that  is  involved  in  this  complex  of  phy- 
siologicSr  activities  and  adjustments. 

Causes  of  Eye  Strain  and  Optic  Fatigue. — What  is 
there  about  the  process  of  reading  which  brings  about 
this  severe  nervous  drain  and  its  resulting  optic  fa- 
tigue? The  conditions  are  many — so  many  that  a 
child's  inattention  during  a  reading  lesson  whose  con- 
text is  not  very  interesting  should  not  be  regarded  as 

ii 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

an  unpardonable  offense.  Chief  among  the  factors 
which  produce  optic  fatigue  we  may  name  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  In  reading  much  nervous  energy  is  necessary  to 
adjust  the  eye  for  near  accommodations.    The  natural 
tendency  is  for  the  eye  to  adjust  itself  to  distant  vision, 
and  give  itself  over  to  the  round  of  varied  presenta- 
tions within  its  range. 

2.  In  order  to  get  each  succeeding  phrase  of  any 
sentence  into  the  brightest  part  of  the  field  of  vision, 
the  eye  moves  over  the  lines  by  means  of  the  succes- 
sion of  sweeps  and  pauses  that  were  considered.    This 
is  the  greatest  single  factor  in  nervous  strain  caused  by 
reading. 

3.  During  reading  the  eye  muscles  are  not  in  mo- 
tion nine-tenths  of  the  time.    But,  while  they  are  mo- 
tionless, they  are  strained,  trying  to  hold  the  eye  in 
focus,  so  that  each  visual  grasp  of  the  line  will  fall 
on    the    most    sensitive    area    of    the    retina.     This 
strained   rest   is   far  more   fatiguing  than  ordinary 
movement. 

4.  In  the  reading  position  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
are  strained  to  hold  the  head  in  proper  position.    This 
adjustment,  when  continued  for  a  protracted  period, 
causes  an  obvious  nervous  strain.     Brain  energy  is 
thus  reduced  and  mental  vitality  is  lowered. 

5.  The  forward  bend  of  the  head  produces  a  blood 
congestion  which  aggravates  the  symptoms  just  noted 
in  preceding  causes. 

6.  Prolonged  reading  periods  in  ill-lighted  rooms, 

12 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE   OF   READING 

and  in  seats  and  at  desks  that  are  poorly  adapted  to 
the  children,  cause  myopia,  which  is  a  constant  drain 
upon  neural  energy.  Myopia  is  not  only  an  eye  de- 
formity but  it  is  also  a  progressive  disease. 

In  the  light  of  the  seriousness  of  eye  strain  and  the 
prevalence  of  its  causes,  we  see  the  need  of  books  that 
meet  hygienic  requirements  in  print  and  in  arrange- 
ment. To  continue  putting  the  prevailing  books  into 
the  hands  of  children  is  to  court  optic  fatigue,  general 
nervousness,  and  myopia.  We  must,  therefore,  decide 
on  the  hygienic  requirements  of  a  book  before  we 
consider  its  pedagogical  merits. 

Hygienic  Requirements  of  Properly  Printed  Books 

i.  The  Size  of  the  Type  is  the  Most  Important  Single 
Factor. — There  is  an  unmistakable  and  an  unvarying 
law  for  size  of  type,  viz.,  as  the  type  decreases  in  size 
optic  fatigue  increases.  The  effects  of  insufficient  illu- 
mination are  less  marked  than  those  of  undersized 
type.  Legibility  of  type  is  determined  by  a  number  of 
considerations  which  must  be  observed  by  the  makers 
of  textbooks:  (a)  the  thickness  of  the  vertical  stroke, 
(b)  proper  spacing  between  vertical  strokes,  (c) 
proper  spacing  between  the  lines,  (d)  clearness  of  the 
tops  of  letters,  (e)  proper  size.  The  standard  for  the 
size  of  type  which  has  met  the  approval  of  most  spe- 
cialists in  the  hygiene  of  reading  is  clearly  formulated 
by  Shaw,  in  his  "School  Hygiene"  (p.  178).  Its  re- 
quirements and  illustrations  follow: 

"For  the  first  year  the  size  of  the  type  should  be  at 

13 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

least  2.6  mm.,  and  the  width  of  leading  4.5  mm.,  as 
shown  in  this  example: 

Little  drop  of  dew, 
Like  a  gem  you  are; 

I  believe  that  you 

Must  have  been  a  star. 

"For  the  second  and  the  third  year,  the  letters 
should  not  be  smaller  than  2  mm.,  with  a  leading  of 
4  mm.  Some  of  the  more  carefully  made  books  for 
the  second  and  the  third  years  are  printed  in  letters  of 
this  size,  as  shown  in  the  following  example : 

Children  of  eight  and  nine  should  not 
read  type  smaller  than  this. 

"For  the  fourth  year,  the  letters  should  be  at  least 
1.8  mm.,  with  leading  of  3.6  mm.,  as  follows: 

Children  in  the  fourth^school  year  should  read 
type  of  this  size  and  appearance. 

"For  some  grades  succeeding  this,  the  type  should 
be  kept  well  above  the  minimal  requirements  for 
adult  readers." 

14 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE   OF   READING 

2.  The  Length  of  the  Line  is  the  Factor  Next  in 
Importance. — Short  and  uniform  lines,  measuring  be- 
tween  seventy-five   and   ninety  millimeters,   are   de- 
manded by  most  expert  investigators.     Ninety  milli- 
meters is  most  favored.    A  full  line  in  this  book  meas- 
ures about  90  millimeters.    The  short  line  saves  a  num- 
ber of  eye  movements,  for  the  eye  begins  each  line  at 
a  point  indented,  and  it  stops  at  a  point  some  distance 
from  the  end  of  the  line.    Experiments  show  that  we 
have  a  greater  visual  grasp  when  the  lines  are  short 
than  when  they  are  long.     Another  cardinal  require- 
ment here  is  absolute  uniformity  in  the  length  of  the 
lines. 

3.  Books  should  be  small  enough  to  be  held  in  the 
hand. — Books  that  are  large  and  heavy  are  usually 
placed  on  the  desk.      The    angle    of   vision   is    now 
changed,  and  the  letters,  becoming  foreshortened,  are 
thus  practically  reduced  in  size. 

4.  The  Character  of  the  Paper  is  Also  Very  Impor- 
tant.— The  most  legible  print  is  produced  by  making 
the  strongest  contrast  between  the  color  of  the  print 
and  that  of  the  paper.     Since  black  on  a  white  back- 
ground forms  this  contrast  in  color,  only  good  white 
paper  should  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  school 
books.     Unusual  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  out  of 
the  school,  books  printed  on  glossed  paper.    The  cheap 
paper  with  a  sheen,  that  makes  up  so  many  of  our 
school  textbooks,  gives  a  play  of  light  that  is  most 
aggravating  to  the  eye.    An  equally  important  require- 
ment insists  that  the  paper  have  a  minimum  thickness 

15 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

of  .075  mm.,  so  that  the  print  on  one  side  will  not 
show  on  the  other. 

Boards  of  Education  to  Standardize  Books — In  the 
light  of  these  hygienic  demands,  how  many  of  the  class 
textbooks  are  up  to  standard?  An  examination  with 
the  aid  of  a  millimeter  measure  and  a  magnifying 
glass  will  show  to  principals  and  teachers  an  amaz- 
ingly low  percentage.  But  books  properly  printed  need 
not  cost  appreciably  more.  Only  when  Boards  of  Edu- 
cation have  adopted  a  standard  will  publishing  con- 
cerns refrain  from  continuing  the  publication  of  books 
that  rob  eyesight  and  cause  an  inexcusable  nervous 
drain.  Indifference  to  matters  so  vital  to  health  and 
efficiency  is  unpardonable. 

* 
SUGGESTED  READING 

COHEN,  H.  The  Hygiene  of  the  Eye.  The  Midland 
Educational  Co.  (Ltd.),  Eng. 

DRESSLAR,  T.  B.  School  Hygiene,  chap.  XV.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

HUEY,  EDMUND  B.  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing, chaps.  II,  III,  XX,  XXI. 

SHAW,  EDWARD  R.  School  Hygiene,  chap. '  IX.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

TAYLOR,  J.  S.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching 
Reading,  chaps.  II,  VIII.  The  Macmillan  Co. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  READING 

Inner  Speech  in  Beading.  — We  come  now  to  a  more 
complex  problem,  the  psychology  of  reading,  which 
studies  how  the  visual  impression  of  the  word  stimu- 
lates the  auditory  image,  thus  bringing  about  mean- 
ing and  interpretations.  Because  there  is  an  insepar- 
able association  between  a  word  and  its  sound  there  is 
always  a  problem  of  inner  speech.  Just  as  soon  as  a 
visual  image  of  a  word  is  recognized  in  consciousness 
an  auditory  image  of  it  arises,  and  these  two  prompt 
an  instantaneous  verbal  motor  expression.  Hence  the 
conclusion  of  investigators  is,  "In  visual  reading  the 
auditory  and  the  motor  centers  work  along"  (Mess- 
mer).  Purely  visual  reading  is  not  normal.  We  have 
here,  therefore,  an  explanation  of  the  prevalent  prac- 
tice, in  early  reading,  of  lip  movement.  This  method 
of  reading  is  not  acquired  by  the  children;  it  is  the 
result  of  the  natural  tendency  to  give  expression  to 
any  idea  in  the  mind.  No  sooner  does  the  mind  be- 
come conscious  of  the  meaning  of  the  symbol  which  it 
sees  than  the  organs  of  speech  give  expression  to  it. 
Reading  without  lip  reaction  is  an  acquired  art,  a 
habit  to  be  cultivated.  But,  even  when  there  is  no 

17 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

apparent  lip  movement,  there  is  a  muscular  reaction 
going  on  in  the  throat,  which  can  readily  be  detected 
by  the  trained  observer  and  his  instruments. 

The  preceding  discussions  concerned  themselves 
with  eye  reading.  In  the  present  chapter  we  must 
turn  our  attention  to  a  second  form  of  reading 
— mental  reading.  These  two  forms  of  reading, 
eye  reading  and  mind  reading,  must  be  differenti- 
ated very  clearly.  Because  the  child,  who  is  learning 
to  read,  speaks  and  hears  his  native  language,  he  has 
a  feeling  for  its  structure,  form,  and  cadence.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  most  of  the  expression,  the 
stops  at  sense  pauses,  the  intonations,  etc.,  in  the  child's 
speech,  are  due  to  associations  formed  long  ago.  In 
reading  "since  he"  the  child  naturally  expects  "he 
therefore";  likewise  "not  only"  calls  up  "but  also"; 
"as"— "as";  "neither— nor" ;  "if— then,"  etc.  The 
mind,  therefore,  makes  a  liberal  contribution  to  what 
the  eye  brings ;  a  reader  perceives  mentally  more  than 
the  eye  brings  in  any  one  sweep.  Since  this  mental 
expectancy  makes  the  mind  a  more  rapid  reader  than 
the  eye,  it  follows  that  one  often  has  the  meaning  of 
a  sentence  before  the  eye  has  formed  a  retinal  image 
of  the  end  of  it. 

Relation  of  "Bate  in  Beading"  to  Thought  Acquisition 
in  Reading. — The  practical  teacher  may  now  ask, 
"Why  stop  at  the  problems  of  inner  speech  in  reading, 
and  mental  vs.  visual  reading?"  These  two  questions 
are  important,  because  they  determine  a  most  vital 
factor  in  reading  as  a  process  of  thought-getting,  viz., 

18 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   READING 

"Rate  in  Reading."  From  actual  observation  we  find 
that  there  are  great  discrepancies  in  the  rate  of  read- 
ing among  individuals ;  the  variations  show  a  usual  ra- 
tio of  1 13,  or  even  1 14.  In  other  words,  it  is  usual 
to  find  among  people  of  the  same  class,  experience,  and 
education  individuals  who  read  three  or  four  times 
faster  than  others.  Generally  speaking,  the  rate  in 
reading  is  determined  by  the  rhythmical  sweeps  of  the 
eye  over  a  line;  but  the  rate  of  rhythmic  sweeps  is,  in 
its  turn,  modified  by  inner  speech  and  mental  grasp. 
The  impatient  teacher,  confronted  by  actual  problems 
in  the  teaching  of  reading,  may  insist :  "What  if 
there  is  such  discrepancy — aside  from  the  time  con- 
sumed, what  is  its  importance?  After  all,  is  it  not 
more  important  to  consider  what  we  read  and  what 
we  get  out  of  it,  than  how  much  or  how  fast  we  read  ?" 

The  answer,  surprisingly,  is  in  the  negative.  Rapid 
readers^  are  the  more  intelligent  readers ;  they  gain 
^more_  intensive  and  more  vivid  impressions  than  slow. 
readers^  Those  who  indulge  in  lip  movement,  in  audi- 
tory aids  and  the  like  are  not  only  less  extensive  but 
also  less  intensive  readers.  Evidence  to  prove  this 
contention  is  so  great  that  we  need  argue  the  matter 
no  further  but  examine  the  conclusions  of  various  im- 
partial observers: 

"Experiments  show  that  half-second  exposure  of  a 
word  is  more  advantageous  than  a  whole  second,  and 
one  second  more  advantageous  than  two.  .  .  .  When 
printed  matter  was  exposed  for  a  short  time,  about 
one  one-hundredth  of  a  second,  more  could  be  read  or 

19 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

the  same  amount  could  be  read  more  easily,  than  when 
the  exposure  was  longer."  x 

"Rapid  readers  remember  more  of  the  original 
thought,  and  the  character  of  their  reproductions  is 
much  higher,  both  generally  and  with  reference  to  ex- 
pression and  logical  content."  2 

"It  might  be  supposed  that  greater  rapidity  was 
gained  at  the  sacrifice  of  exactness  or  of  intelligence. 
This  supposition  is  negatived  by  an  examination  of 
the  amount  and  quantity  of  the  material  reproduced. 
A  comparison  between  the  ten  most  rapid  readers  and 
the  ten  slowest  shows  that  the  rapid  readers  remember 
more  of  the  original  thoughts,  and  that  the  character 
of  their  reproduction  is  much  higher,  both  generally 
and  with  reference  to  expression  and  logical  content. 
In  the  auditory  tests  the  ratio  of  slow  to  rapid  readers 
is  14.8  per  cent,  to  20.7  per  cent,  in  the  number  of 
thoughts.  In  quality  the  percentages  are  47.8  for  slow 
readers,  60.3  for  fast.  The  same  comparison  in  the 

*HUEY.  "Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading." 
'QUANTZ.  Psychological  Review,  ii,  28,  38.  The  degree  in 
which  the  rapid  readers  excel  the  slow  in  eyemindedness  can 
perhaps  best  be  understood  by  a  comparison  of  extreme  classes. 
The  "very  slow  readers"  (3.9  words  per  second)  reproduce  89.1 
per  cent,  as  much  of  the  visual  selection  as  the  auditory,  while 
the  very  "rapid  readers"  (7.3  words  per  second)  are  able  to 
recall  123.2  of  visual  for  every  100  of  auditory;  that  is,  the 
ratio  of  reading  rates  between  the  slowest  and  the  fastest  readers 
is  3.9  to  7.3  (i  :i.87),  while  the  ratio  of  visual  tendency  as  com- 
pared with  the  auditory  is  89.1  to  123.2  (1:1.38).  On  the  princi- 
ple of  correlations  this  result  shows  eyemindedness  to  be  a 
rather  strong  factor  in  the  determination  of  reading  rates. 

20 


THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   READING 

visual  tests  results  as  follows :  Percentage  of  thoughts 
reproduced  by  slow  readers,  14.9;  by  rapid,  24.4. 
Quality:  Slow,  48  per  cent;  rapid,  73.3  per  cent. 
The  difference  in  favor  of  the  'rapids'  is  consequently 
much  greater  than  in  auditory  tests,  indicating  again 
that  rapid  readers  are,  as  a  rule,  of  the  visual  type.  .  .  . 
"To  emphasize  this  relation  a  comparison  of  ex- 
tremes might  be  shown  as  follows :  The  ten  slowest 
readers  show  almost  double  the  amount  of  lip  move- 
ment that  the  ten  most  rapid  do.  Or,  again,  determin- 
ing the  rate  by  means  of  lip  movement,  we  have :  the 
ten  most  decided  lip  movers  read  4.1  words  per  sec- 
ond; that  is,  they  are  between  the  classes  'slow'  and 
'very  slow'  and  nearer  to  the  latter ;  while  the  ten  who 
show  least  movement  of  lips  read  5.6  words  per  sec- 
ond, very  close  to  an  average  rapid."  1 

Why  the  Slow  Beader  Is  the  Less  Thoughtful  One. 
— "Regarding  language  as  an  apparatus  of  symbols 
for  the  conveyance  of  thought,  we  may  say  that,  as  in 
a  mechanical  apparatus,  the  more  simple  and  the  better 
arranged  are  the  parts,  the  greater  will  be  the  effect 
produced.  In  either  case,  whatever  force  is  absorbed 
by  the  machine  is  deducted  from  the  result.  A  reader 
or  listener  has  at  each  moment  but  a  limited  amount 
of  mental  power  available.  To  recognize  and  interpret 
the  symbols  presented  to  him  requires  part  of  this 
power;  to  arrange  and  combine  the  images  suggested 
requires  another  part ;  and  only  that  part  that  remains 
can  be  used  for  realizing  the  thought  conveyed.  Hence 

1  QUANTZ.    Ibid. 

21 


TEACHING   CHILDREN  TO   READ 

the  more  time  it  takes  to  receive  and  understand  each 
sentence,  the  less  time  can  be  given  to  the  contained 
idea,  and  the  less  vividly  will  the  idea  be  conceived."  * 

Conclusions  for  Teaching. — The  relation  of  rate  of 
reading  to  intelligence  of  grasp  implies  important  con- 
clusions for  methods  of  teaching  in  both  early  and 
later  grades.  The  first  inference  that  we  can  make 
is  that  a  method  of  reading  must  start  from  the  very 
beginning  to  teach  instantaneous  recognition  of  words, 
either  as  a  whole  or  as  part  of  larger  language  units, 
phrases  or  sentences.  Any  method  which  begins  read- 
ing by  teaching  the  child  to  examine  each  word,  to 
analyze  it  into  component  phonograms,  to  sound  each 
phonogram,  to  combine  these  sounds  to  get  the  word, 
places  a  premium  on  lip  movement  and  unnecessary 
audible  aids,  and  promotes  slow,  ponderous  reading, 
which  develops  into  habits  that  defy  later  efforts  at 
correction.  Our  objection  to  synthetic  methods,  like 
the  Pollard  Method,  and  the  Emma  K.  Qordon  Meth- 
od is  that  they  manifest  these  shortcomings.  Meth- 
ods like  the  Aldine^  the  ^Jc£loskey,  the  Progres- 
sive Road,  and,  in  a  minor  way,  the  Ward  Rational 
System,  seek  to  avoid  these  dangers.  The  child  must 
learn  to  read  words  in  logical  sequence,  words  as 
wholes,  naturally  and  expressively.  Only  when  proper 
and  natural  speed  and  expression  are  developed  are  the 
analytical  and  phonetical  elements  and  processes 
taught. 

A  second  conclusion  that  the  observations  of  "rate 

'SPENCER.     Philosophy  of  Style. 

22 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  READING 

in  reading"  teach  is  that,  since  the  mind  reads  faster 
than  the  eye,  the  learner  must  be  taught  to  neglect  the 
word  and  the  phrase  and  seek  the  thought;  in  other 
words,  the  word-symbols  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
meaning.  We  must  make  the  eye  as  sensitive  and 
efficient  a  tool  for  thought-getting  as  the  ear.  In  lis- 
tening to  a  speaker,  if  there  is  nothing  unusual  about 
his  choice  of  words  or  pronunciation,  we  are  hardly 
conscious  of  the  words;  we  busy  ourselves  with  the 
thought.  We  have  thus  trained  ourselves  uncon- 
sciously in  life,  to  neglect  auditory  words  and  seek 
meaning.  In  the  same  way,  the  method  of  reading  in 
the  elementary  school  must  seek  to  make  the  eye  so 
sensitive  to  meaning  that  in  scanning  a  page  it  be- 
comes as  unconcerned  with  printed  words  as  the  ear  is 
with  auditory  symbols.  The  child  must  learn  that 
words  are  like  our  eye-glasses — they  are  of  greatest 
service  when  we  look  through  them,  not  at  them.  The 
printed  page  must  ever  be  like  a  glass  which  we  do  not 
see,  but  through  which  we  see  thought. 

The  Fetish  of  Oral  Beading. — If  we  grant  this  con- 
clusion then  we  must  change  the  relative  emphasis  on 
oral  and  silent  reading,  and  give  to  the  latter  the 
prominent  place  accorded  the  former  in  present-day 
practice.  Not  only  do  we  place  too  great  an  emphasis 
on  oral  reading,  but  we  begin  it  too  early  in  the  school 
life  of  the  child.  The  popular  superstition  is  that 
plenty  of  drill  in  oral  reading  in  the  classroom  pre- 
pares for  efficiency  in  silent  reading  in  the  post-school 
days.  Let  us  examine  this  contention  psychologically. 

23  / 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

Efficiency  in  silent  reading  is  determined  by  the  devel- 
opment of  a  mental  habit  to  associate  instantaneously 
the  visual  image  of  the  word  with  the  thought.  In  all 
oral  reading  the  visual  image  must  associate  itself  with 
the  auditory  image ;  these,  then,  bring  a  recognition  of 
the  idea  represented  by  the  symbol.  The  final  link  in 
this  long  chain  is  the  verbal-motor  expression.  Graph- 
ically, the  associations  in  these  two  forms  of  reading 
may  be  expressed  in  the  following  symbols:  Silent 
Reading:  Visual  Image — Thought.  Oral  Reading: 
Visual  Image — Auditory  Image — Idea — Verbal  Motor 
Image.  The  brain  centers  that  operate,  and  also  the 
mental  associations  and  stimulations,  are  different  in 
the  two  forms  of  reading.  An  overemphasis  on  oral 
reading,  therefore,  trains  the  mind  to  make  the  long 
circuit,  and  thus  unfits  the  individual  for  efficient  read- 
ing in  later  life.  The  earlier  we  develop  the  short 
circuit  habit  of  "visual  image,  thought,"  in  our  chil- 
dren, the  sooner  are  we  making  them  efficient  and  in- 
telligent readers.  Many  writers  would  go  so  far  as 
to  insist  that  oral  reading  should  be  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  and  should  be  tolerated  in  the 
class  only  as  an  expression  of  a  thought  gained  or 
sentiments  enjoyed  during  the  lesson.  This  is  obvi- 
ously an  extreme  attitude. 

These  educators  justify  their  plea  for  a  postpone- 
ment of  oral  reading  on  the  ground  that  the  steps  in 
oral  reading  are:  (i)  instantaneous  recognition  of 
symbols,  (2)  extraction  of  the  thought,  (3)  expres- 
sion of  the  thought.  Hence  no  effective  oral  reading 

24 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  READING 

can  take  place  unless  the  child  has  developed  reliable 
ability  and  undoubted  mastery  of  rapid  symbol  inter- 
pretation and  thought  extraction.  This  capability 
must  necessarily  come  after  long,  laborious  effort.  It 
is  because  children  are  asked  to  read  without  guaran- 
teeing this  ability  that  real  expression  is  not  only  im- 
possible but  is  undermined  permanently.  The  blame 
for  the  stiff,  stilted,  artificial  oral  reading  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  must  be  laid  at  the  door  of  premature 
oral  reading. 

A  third  lesson  that  this  psychological  study  teaches 
us  is  that  from  the  very  beginning  the  work  in  primary 
reading  must  be  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  develop 
(i)  speed,  (2)  accuracy,  (3)  direct  association  be- 
tween printed  symbol  and  idea,  omitting  the  auditory 
image.  Therefore,  in  asking  children  to  read  early 
blackboard  exercises,  the  time  during  which  the  sen- 
tence or  phrase  or  word  is  exposed  should  be  limited. 
The  subject-matter  to  be  read  is  shown  and  then 
quickly  erased  or  covered.  Instead  of  reading  the 
assigned  sentence  orally  after  this  limited  exposure, 
let  the  child  give  evidence  of  the  possession  of  the 
thought  in  ways  other  than  verbal.  Thus  the  first 
rhyme  of  the  Aldine  Method,  "Come,  come  away  and 
play"  is  shown.  Two  children  are  called,  "A"  takes 
"B"  by  the  hand  and  attempts  to  lead  him  away  to 
play.  "Have  you  a  knife?"  is  the  sentence  given  to 
another  lad  to  read.  He  looks  at  it,  "sees"  the 

thought,  and  then  says,  "Yes,  Miss  ,  I  have  a 

knife."    "The  soldiers  are  marching  down  the  street," 

25 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

is  an  assignment  to  the  next  pupil.  Instead  of  reading 
it  aloud,  he  gives  evidence  of  the  thought  by  march- 
ing down  the  aisle  like  a  soldier.  In  all  these  exercises 
the  endeavor  is  to  train  the  child  to  omit  the  auditory 
image,  to  develop  speed  in  reading  and  to  read  for 
thought.  Such  drills  are  a  source  of  absorbing  interest 
to  the  children  and  develop  a  basis  of  correct  habits 
upon  which  the  teacher  can  confidently  build. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

BALLIET,  THOMAS  M.    Association  of  Ideas  in  Reading. 

National  Education  Association,  1893. 
DEARBORN,  W.  F.     Psychology  of  Reading.     Columbia 

University  Contributions  to   Philosophy  and   Psy- 
chology, V,  XIV,  No.  i. 
HUEY,  E.  B.     Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading, 

chaps.  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII. 
LAING,  MARY  E.     Reading;  A  Manual  for  Teachers, 

chaps.  X,  XI,  XIX,  XX. 
TAYLOR,  J.   S.     Principles   and  Methods   of  Teaching 

Reading,  chaps.  I,  III. 
O'SHEA,  M.  V.     Linguistic  Development,  pp.  163-230. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PEDAGOGY  OF  READING 
A.  WHEN  SHALL  READING  BE  TAUGHT? 

A  popular  question  of  the  day  among  theoretical 
educators  is  when  to  begin  to  teach  elementary  read- 
ing. Their  conclusions  show  remarkable  unanimity, 
for  writers  like  Dewey,  Huey,  Laing,  McMurry,  Mary 
Putnam  Jacobi  and  Parker  insist  on  the  elimination 
of  reading  in  the  first  three  years  of  school  life.  One 
naturally  questions  their  position.  In  the  main  their 
arguments  are  fivefold : 

1.  The  Hygienic  Considerations. — We  saw  the  dan- 
gers of  eye  fatigue  and  eye  strain  in  reading,  how  ill 
adapted  the  eye  seems  to  be  for  the  purposes  that 
present-day  civilization  imposes  upon  it.  Hence  it  is  ar- 
gued that  the  young  child  should  be  relieved  of  the  at- 
tending physiological  dangers  in  learning  to  read.    But 
we  must  realize  the  inevitable  fact  that  the  eye  must 
be  accustomed  to  read,  must  learn  to  adjust  itself  to 
twentieth-century  needs.     If  books  were  printed  in 
accordance  with  hygienic  prescriptions  the  attending 
dangers  would  be  greatly  minimized. 

2.  Psychological    Considerations — Those    educators 

27 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

who  insist  that  children  in  the  first  three  years  of  the 
school  course  should  not  be  taught  to  read  base  their 
position  on  psychological  grounds.  In  the  first  place, 
they  argue  that  coarser  adjustments  must  be  made  be- 
fore the  finer  ones,  that  the  fundamental  muscles  must 
be  controlled  before  the  delicate  peripheral  ones.  The 
muscles  of  the  body  in  general,  those  in  the  arms, 
hands,  legs,  etc.,  should  be  made  sensitive  and  ready 
to  coordinate  with  the  mind  before  we  develop  in  the 
child  the  ability  to  attend  to  the  more  delicate  coordi- 
nations. Their  second  psychological  objection  is  that 
concrete  knowledge  must  be  acquired  before  symbols 
are  taught.  Hence  the  opponents  of  early  reading  in- 
sist, why  not  teach  the  facts  of  nature,  of  local  geogra- 
phy, of  industry,  of  manual  work,  before  giving  the 
symbols  for  thought-getting  in  reading.  That  bad 
mental  habits  are  developed  is  another  argument  of 
this  school.  The  child  is  too  young  to  concentrate 
upon  such  work,  hence  mind  wandering  is  encouraged, 
and  the  powers  for  application  are  undermined.  These 
exercises  in  symbol  interpretation  are  opposed  to  the 
cravings  and  interests  characteristic  of  the  young  child, 
and  there  is  constant  aversion  rather  than  attraction. 
A  final  psychological  objection  which  these  educators 
advance  is  that,  with  the  very  young  child  the  whole 
process  is  an  unintelligent  one.  The  processes  in  read- 
ing are  too  difficult,  and  they  hold  that  all  mental  ac- 
tivity goes  to  the  recognition  of  symbols,  rather  than 
to  the  thought  which  they  symbolize.  They  argue  that 
this  explains  the  frequency,  among  children,  of  expres- 

28 


PEDAGOGY   OF  READING 

sionless  reading,  constant  stumbling  and  word-reading, 
rather  than  thought  acquisition, — in  a  word,  the 
wrong  habits  of  reading  that  defy  the  teacher's  effort. 
3.  Social  Considerations. — These  opponents  of  earty 
reading  tell  us  that  for  sociological  reasons  the  pre- 
vailing custom  of  initiating  the  young  child  into  the 
mysteries  of  symbols  is  unsound  pedagogy.  Life  to- 
day, they  argue,  is  industrial  and  manual.  Bookish- 
ness  is  not  a  characteristic  of  modern  social  organiza- 
tion. Reading  is  too  individual  a  process  for  the 
young  child,  whose  life  and  outlook  are  intensely  self- 
centered.  We  must  teach  the  social  duties  and  social 
relations  of  life.  This  seems  an  imposing  indictment 
against  our  system  of  primary  reading,  but  our  very 
social  life  is  the  main  justification  for  elementary  read- 
ing in  the  beginning  of  school  life.  The  efficiency  of 
our  mails,  the  universality  of  the  newspaper,  the  multi- 
plicity of  worthy  publications,  the  unprecedented  facil- 
ities of  the  public  libraries,  and  cheap  printing  make 
reading  a  positive  necessity  that  must  be  answered  as 
soon  as  possible.  Reading  and  writing  need  not  mo- 
nopolize the  first  three  years  of  elementary  training; 
there  need  be  no  reading  fetish.  But  withal,  reading 
deserves  an  important  place  in  these  grades.  It  is  in- 
appropriate to  apply  the  term,  "bookishness"  to  such 
work.  Once  the  child  has  learned  to  read,  he  has  a 
source  of  infinite  joy  and  rich  culture.  In  spite  of  all 
that  is  said  to  the  contrary,  there  is  nothing  individual- 
istic in  this  pleasure.  Reading  is  a  very  social  process ; 
it  acquaints  the  child  with  the  thoughts  and  the  lives 

29 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

of  others,  and  breaks  the  confining  bonds  of  the  child's 
personal  life. 

4.  The  Culture  Epoch  Theory  Against  Early  Beading. 
— This  theory  of  recapitulation,  when  applied  to  edu- 
cation, has  been  interpreted  to  mean  that  each  indi- 
vidual should  be  taken  through  those  stages  through 
which  the  race  passed  in  its  development.    The  early 
life  of  man  concerned  itself  with  the  concrete;  it  knew 
only  oral  speech;  man  himself  was  ear-minded,  not 
eye-minded,  in  language.    Hence,  these  educators  con- 
clude that  all  language  work  in  the  early  grades  must 
be  exclusively  oral.    While  all  these  characterizations 
of  early  society  are  true,  we  must,  nevertheless,  realize 
that,  to  prepare  the  child  for  present  and  future  life, 
we  teach  the  needs  of  existing  and  not  of  past  society. 

5.  Pedagogical  Considerations. — The    advocates    for 
the  postponement  of  the  teaching  of  reading  bring, 
finally,  pedagogical  considerations  to  bear  out  their 
contention.    Why  spend  so  much  time  and  effort  on  a 
task  that  can  be  accomplished  in  less  time  and  to 
greater  advantage  when  the  child  is  two  or  three  years 
older?    The  child  is  a  motor  animal,  with  interests 
that  are  manual  and  practical.     He  turns  from  the 
early  phases  of  reading  because  the  work  is  too  formal 
and  lacks  vital  motive.     Here,  too,  we  find  an  array 
against  early  reading  which  is  not  as  true  and  as  far- 
reaching  as  is  often  supposed.     True,  reading  can  be 
taught  the  child  of  ten  with  greater  ease  than  the  child 
of  six,  but  so  can  any  other  serious  subject;  therefore, 
why  not  postpone  all  school  work?    The  child  is  a 

30 


PEDAGOGY  OF  READING 

motor  animal,  but,  despite  this  prominent  characteris- 
tic, he  has  other  interests  as  well.  He  is  curious;  he 
loves  the  story;  he  has  a  dramatic  sense,  a  feeling  for 
rhythm,  etc.  Although  the  child  experiences  no  "per- 
sonal hunger"  for  reading,  the  problem,  approached 
carefully,  need  not  be  the  arbitrary  lesson  it  is  made 
out  to  be.  The  love  for  the  story,  and  the  desire  for 
the  acquisition  of  a  practical  art,  the  social  use  of 
which  the  child  sees  daily  in  his  immediate  life,  serve 
to  motivate  early  reading  lessons.  By  erroneous  meth- 
ods and  unattractive  devices,  teachers  often  kill  the 
vital  interest  which  children  bring  to  this  work.  This 
argues,  not  the  postponement  of  reading,  but  a  decided 
and  immediate  reform  in  methods  of  teaching  read- 
ing. Despite  the  long  imposing  series  of  arguments 
to  the  contrary,  the  writer  feels  that  reading  should 
be  taught  at  an  age  as  early  as  the  child  will  allow. 
Experience  shows  this  to  be  about  the  age  of  seven. 
Reading  is  the  "open  sesame"  to  those  ideals, 
inspirations  and  joys  of  the  past,  which  have 
been  crystallized  in  literature.  The  mechanics  of 
reading  entail  a  mastery  of  arbitrary  and  unin- 
teresting symbols.  The  sooner  the  drudgery  is 
finished,  and  we  present  to  our  children  the  vital 
elements  of  reading,  the  surer  are  we  to  implant  an 
appreciation  of  true  literature.  A  cursory  perusal  of 
the  educational  statistics  concerning  elimination  and 
overage  shows  that  an  alarmingly  increasing  number 
of  children  joins  the  industrial  and  commercial  ranks 
at  the  end  of  the  sixth  school  year.  If  reading  is  post- 
31 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

poned  to  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year,  we  shall 
send  out  a  large  percentage  of  the  school  population 
woefully  handicapped.  In  the  final  view,  the  practical 
needs  of  the  community,  rather  than  subtle  psycho- 
logical analyses,  must  determine  the  organization  of 
educational  systems  and  their  curricula. 

B.     BASIC   AIMS   IN   EEADINQ 

There  are  two  contending  conceptions  that  govern 
methods  of  teaching  reading  to  children  in  the  early 
grades.  One  strives  to  make  reading  a  formal  or 
mechanical  process,  the  other  looks  upon  reading  as  a 
cultural  or  educational  influence.  The  method  that  a 
teacher  follows  gains  its  life  and  spirit  from  the  point 
of  view  that  she  takes  toward  her  work.  Uncon- 
sciously she  interprets  every  phase  of  her  work  in 
terms  of  it.  We  must,  therefore,  consider  the  contend- 
ing viewpoints  in  teaching  reading. 

Formal  Reading.  Educational  or  Thought 

Reading. 

1.  Reading  must  always         i.  Reading  justifies  itself 
be  looked  upon  as  an  end  in     only  because  it  is  a  means 
itself.  to     a     higher    end,    viz., 

thought. 

2.  Reading  is  a  technical         2.  Reading  must  be 
process,  and  as  such  is  con-     looked  upon  as  a  process  of 
cerned    with    giving    the      thought-getting,    of    learn- 
child  a  mastery  of  the  tools,     ing  to  express  thought,  of 

32 


PEDAGOGY   OF  READING 


the  symbols,  by  means  of 
which  we  gain  thought. 
Aside  from  this  technical 
ability  the  teacher  of  read- 
ing need  have  no  other 
care  nor  concern. 

3.  Since  reading  is  a  me- 
chanical process,  it  must  be 
taught  as  an  arbitrary  proc- 
ess through  hard  memory 
drills.  No  reason,  no  mo- 
tive need  be  given. 


4.  To  speak  of  getting 
thought    without     making 
reading  a  process  of  sym- 
bol   interpretation    is    ab- 
surd.    Children    leave 
school   hampered   in  their 
ability  to  extract  the 
thought  from  the  printed 
page  because  their  knowl- 
edge of  symbols,  phonics, 
word  analysis,   etc.,  is  so 
vague  that  the  deficiencies 
in    the    formal    aspect   of 
reading    make    impossible 
progress  in  the  rational. 

5.  That  the  sentence  is 
the  unit  of  mental  grasp, 
and  the  word  the  unit  of 


increasing  one's  language 
stock.  The  mastery  of 
symbols  must  be  incidental 
and  of  subordinate  inter- 
est. 

3.  As  a  thought-getting 
process,   reading  must  al- 
ways   start    from    a    con- 
scious  need    felt    by    the 
child.     His   love    for   the 
story,  his  desire  to  know 
how  to  read,  will  rational- 
ize the  work. 

4.  True,  thought-getting 
is  simplified  and  even  made 
possible  only  in  proportion 
as  the  symbols  are  turned 
into  habit.     But  the  child 
should  begin  by  reading  for 
thought.    All  technicalities 
must  be   based  upon   the 
work  thus  mastered. 


5.  If  the  aim  of  reading 
is  to  develop  the  ability  to 
extract  thought  from  the 


33 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 


visual  grasp,  if  the  oft- 
quoted  law;  hence  a  mas- 
tery of  words  must  pre- 
cede a  mastery  of  the  sen- 
tence. 


6.  Reading  must  be  a 
synthetic  process ;  begin 
with  a  study  of  phonics, 
phonograms,  sounds;  com- 
bine these  so  that  the  child 
learns  to  read  any  new 
word.  Typical  of  the  meth- 
ods conceived  in  this  spirit 
is  the  Gordon  or  the  Pol- 
lard Method. 


printed  page,  and  if  the 
sentence  is  the  unit  of 
thought,  then  the  child 
ought  to  be  taught  to  read 
sentences  first  and  then  to 
master  the  words  that  make 
them  up. 

6.  Teach  reading  as  an 
analytical  process ;  the  sen- 
tence must  be  mastered  be- 
fore the  word,  and  the 
word  before  the  phono- 
gram. The  McCloskey 
Method,  The  F  a  r  n  h  a  m 
Method,  The  Aldine,  The 
Progressive  Road  are  typi- 
cal illustrations. 


Conclusion. — Despite  the  sharp  line  of  demarcation 
that  each  school  seeks  to  draw,  we  see  that  neither  has 
a  monopoly  of  pedagogical  wisdom.  If  we  unite  these 
two  tendencies  we  evolve  a  composite  method  which 
insures  thoughtful,  expressive  reading,  fluent  and 
smooth,  and  which  also  develops  that  mastery  of  the 
technique  of  symbols  that  is  absolutely  essential.  A 
method  must  begin  with  thought  acquisition.  The 
text  of  this  reading  is  analyzed  and  is  made  to  yield 
material  for  the  study  of  phonograms,  which  are  basic 
in  independent  word  recognition.  In  making  our  final 
recommendation  for  a  modern,  progressive  and  peda- 
gogical method  of  teaching  reading  in  the  primary 
grades,  we  shall  again  refer  to  this  standard. 

34 


PEDAGOGY   OF  READING 

SUGGESTED  READING 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.     Teaching  of  English, 

75-80.    Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
CHUBB,  PERCIVAL.     The  Teaching  of  English,  chap.  V. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
DEWEY,  JOHN.    The  Primary  Education  Fetish.    Forum, 

v,  315-328. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  Elementary  School  Course  in  Eng- 
lish, 35-42.  University  of  Chicago  Press. 

HUEY,  E.  B.  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading, 
chaps.  XV,  XVI. 

LAING,  MARY  E.  Reading ;  A  Manual  for  Teachers,  chap. 
II. 

TAYLOR,  J.  S.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching 
Reading,  chap.  IV. 


CHAPTER  V: 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 
EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  BEADING 

The  Multiplicity  of  Primary  Methods. — The  student 
of  methodology  is  bewildered  by  the  numerous  and 
diversified  methods  that  have  been  evolved  for  teach- 
ing children  to  read.  This  multiplicity  shows  clearly 
that  the  problem  of  primary  reading  is  an  exceedingly 
difficult  one,  and  that  many  of  the  current  methods  are 
ill  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  practical  classroom 
teacher.  In  this  vast  array  of  methods  we  can  discern 
six  that  are  basic  in  so  far  as  they  contribute  a  dis- 
tinct idea  in  the  progressive  development  of  methods 
of  teaching  primary  children  to  read.  These  basic 
methods  are  grouped  under  two  main  headings, 
the  Synthetic  vs.  the  Analytic  Methods.  The  subdivi- 
sions of  these  can  readily  be  seen  from  the  following 
table: 

TABLE  OF  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 


Synthetic  Methods 

Analytic  Methods 

Alphabetic 

Phonic 

Phonetic 

Word  Basis 

Thought  Basis 

Ward 

Sentence  Unit 

Story  Unit 

Farnham 

McCloskey 

All  Modern  Methods  are  Combinations  and  Modifications  of  These. 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

The  simplest  sequence  in  this  evolution  of  method 
is  the  historical  one;  we  shall  examine  each  of  these 
methods  critically  in  the  chronological  order. 

THE   SYNTHETIC   METHODS 

I.  The  Alphabetic  Method. — The  underlying  principle 
of  the  alphabetic  method  is  that  the  combination  of 
letters  will  give  the  word  which  is  the  unit  of  utter- 
ance. The  method,  therefore,  teaches  the  alphabet 
and  then  proceeds  to  develop  a  mastery  of  monosylla- 
bles by  a  method  of  oral  spelling,  c,  a,  t,  cat ;  m,  a,  n, 
man,  etc.,  are  learned  by  verbal  repetitions,  reenforced 
by  visual  appeals  from  the  blackboard  or  charts  on 
which  these  symbols  are  written  or  printed.  This  is 
the  time-honored  method  which  has  taught  mankind 
how  to  read. 

Limitations  of  the  Alphabetic  Method. — Despite  its 
great  service  in  the  past,  the  alphabetic  method  must 
be  set  aside  today  for  many  serious  reasons.  ( i )  It  is 
thoroughly  unpedagogic,  beginning,  not  with  what  the 
child  knows,  with  words,  or  sentences,  but  with  un- 
known names  of  meaningless  letters.  (2)  It  is  illogi- 
cal in  its  basic  principle,  because  only  combination  of 
the  sounds  of  the  letters  will  give  the  word ;  a  combina- 
tion of  the  letters  d,  o,  g  will  give  dee,  0,0,0,  g,  g,  but 
never  the  word  "dog."  The  more  logical  procedure  is, 
therefore,  to  teach  the  sounds  and  make  the  names  in- 
cidental. It  is  true  that  children  will  eventually  infer 
the  sounds  of  letters  from  their  names,  but  this  makes 

37 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

accidental  such  knowledge  as  should  be  focal  in  the 
course  of  instruction.  (3)  This  method  is  exceed- 
ingly tedious,  because  of  its  absolute  disregard  of 
content  and  because  of  its  utter  neglect  of  the  child's 
interest  and  viewpoints  toward  life.  (4)  As  a  final 
indictment  of  the  method  it  must  be  urged  that  it  is 
unduly  difficult.  Actual  test  will  soon  convince  the 
teacher  that  children  will  remember  the  word-pictures 
"father,"  "mother,"  "doll,"  more  readily  than  the 
names  of  the  letters  "f,"  "h,"  "t,"  etc.  The  reason  is 
simple.  In  the  case  of  the  word-picture  the  child  asso- 
ciates an  arbitrary  symbol  with  a  known  name,  but  in 
the  case  of  the  letters  both  name  and  symbol  are  un- 
known. The  obvious  conclusion,  therefore,  counsels 
that  reading  begin  at  the  point  of  contact,  i.  e.f  with 
those  elements  that  are  part  of  the  child's  knowledge 
and  interests. 

It  is  because  of  these  serious  defects  that  the  alpha- 
betic method  has  been  relegated  to  the  pedagogical 
scrap  heap.  It  does  not  follow  that  the  alphabet 
should  not  be  learned.  It  is  an  aid  in  spelling,  and 
very  necessary  for  business  purposes,  for  filing  of  rec- 
ords, for  finding  data  in  directories,  telephone  books, 
dictionaries,  etc.,  and  should  not  be  neglected.  But 
the  alphabet  should  not  be  imposed  before  the  second 
year,  when  its  need  is  felt  in  spelling. 

n.  The  Phonic  Method. — The  basic  fallacy  of  the  al- 
phabetic method  suggests  the  underlying  principle  of 
the  phonic  method,  which  holds  that  since  the  sounds 
of  letters  uttered  rapidly  will  give  the  word,  teaching 

38 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

must  begin  with  the  functions,  not  the  names,  of  let- 
ters. In  the  final  analysis  the  method  is  like  its  prede- 
cessor, except  for  the  fact  that  the  child  is  taught  to 
call  the  letter  by  its  sound  rather  than  by  its  name.  In 
all  other  respects,  the  same  rigorous,  synthetic  process 
is  followed,  with  the  same  utter  neglect  of  content  and 
emphasis  on  form.  The  Emma  K.  Gordon  Method 
is  a  modern  application  of  this  principle  of  reading. 

Despite  the  fact  that  this  principle  found  wide  rec- 
ognition and  application  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  phonic  method  is  a 
modern  inspiration.  Ickelsamer  is  usually  credited  as 
the  originator,  in  1534.  He  taught  reading  by  an  in- 
ter jectional  method7  which  associated  letters  with  ani- 
mals whose  characteristic  sounds  suggested  the  sound 
of  the  letter,  or  with  pictures  that  suggested  the  sounds 
of  letters.  R  was  shown  with  a  picture  of  a  dog 
whose  angry  brrr  suggested  the  sound  of  r;  sch  was 
seen  on  a  picture  of  children  chasing  geese,  because 
the  sound  which  would  frighten  the  animals  suggested 
the  sound  of  sch.  The  Jansenites  (Port  Royalists), 
Buno,  Rousseau,  Basedow,  Pestalozzi,  these  are  only  a 
few  names  of  a  host  of  educators  who  elaborated  the 
phonic  method  and  introduced  the  play  element,  very 
often  to  a  ludicrous  extent. 

Advantages  of  the  Phonic  Method. — For  this  sys- 
tem of  reading  we  must  urge  that  ( i )  it  is  more  logi- 
cal to  teach  the  functions  than  the  names  of  letters; 
(2)  it  gives  the  child  a  more  trained  ear  and  a  better 
articulated  speech;  (3)  it  is  an  aid  in  spelling,  even  in 

39 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

our  unphonetic  language,  and  (4)  it  teaches  the  child 
how  to  attack  a  word  whose  form  is  absolutely  new 
lo  him. 

Limitations  of  the  Phonic  Method. — But  this  meth- 
od, when  applied  to  English,  is  very  often  ineffective. 
In  the  first  place,  it  makes  the  function  of  letters  focal, 
but  the  sound  of  letters  is  precisely  the  least  fixed  ele- 
ment in  our  language;  the  sounds  of  letters  vary  to  an, 
exasperating  degree.  Our  thirteen  vowel  sounds  can 
be  expressed  in  one  hundred  and  four  different  ways : 
the  sound  of  6  is  found  in  float,  yeoman,  sow,  sew, 
soul,  sole,  beau,  owe,  etc. ;  ea  boasts  of  an  equally  rich 
variety  of  sounds.  In  many  cases  a  letter  may  become 
altogether  silent. 

A  second  serious  limitation  of  the  method  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  it  may  encourage  stammering  among 
young  children  whose  coordinations  are  still  unformed 
and  who  show  a  tendency  to  linger  on  labials,  dentals, 
and  liquids.  Any  method  which  teaches  reading  by  a 
process  of  phonic  synthesis  aggravates  a  tendency 
which  the  teacher  must  assiduously  strive  to  eliminate. 
For  this  reason  students  of  methodology  and  expert 
investigators  like  Huey  and  Hughes  are  unalterably 
opposed  to  this  method.  Bell  calls  the  school  that  uses 
phonic  synthesis  a  nursery  for  stammering.  Class 
teachers  bring  practical  evidence  which  bears  out  this 
indictment  against  phonic  synthetic  methods. 

Thirdly,  it  is  apparent  that  this  method  is  no  less  un- 
pedagogical  than  the  alphabetic,  because  it,  too,  begins, 
not  at  the  point  of  contact  between  the  child  and  read- 

40 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

ing,  but  at  the  most  painful  point,  phonics.  This  ex- 
plains why  the  child  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  to 
retain  a  set  of  arbitrary  sounds  for  a  series  of  sym- 
bols that  are  meaningless.  Actual  experience  proves 
that  the  child  remembers  the  arbitrary  names  of  letters 
more  easily  than  the  arbitrary  sounds. 

Final  Estimate  of  the  Phonic  Method. — In  the  light 
of  the  initial  conception  of  reading  as  a  process  of 
thought  acquisition,  it  is  obvious  that  the  method  of 
phonic  synthesis  is  not  a  reading  method.  It  is  merely 
a  systematized  attempt  to  give  the  child  a  mastery  of 
teoimcaFelements  in  the  reading  process.  As  such,  it 
becomes  a  necessary  part  of  a  method  in  reading,  but 
not  a  reading  method  itself.  The  skilful  teacher  uses  it 
merely  as  a  preparatory  drill,  "a  gymnastic  which  is 
aimed  to  sharpen  the  perception  for  words  and  sounds/' 

III.  The  Phonetic  Method. — The  enthusiasts  for  the 
phonic  method  endeavored  to  save  it  from  what  they 
considered  the  most  important  criticism,  viz.,  the  varia- 
bility of  the  function  of  letters.  They  endorsed  the 
basic  principle,  and  the  general  procedure  of  the  phonic 
method,  and  then  set  themselves  to  the  task  of  making 
variable  sounds  permanent.  To  do  this  they  evolved 
a  complex  system  of  diacritical  marks,  and  distorted 
forms  of  letters.  Since  the  sounds  of  a  vary,  then  the 
sound  of  a,  in  bake,  was  represented  as  a,  in  back,  as  a, 
in  far,  as  a,  in  ball,  as  a,  etc;  a  was  to  be  taught  as  dif- 
fering from  a  as  much  as  it  does  from  b  or  d.  If  c 
has  two  sounds,  then  c  represented  one  sound  and  C 
the  other.  Much  ingenuity  was  spent  in  evolving 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

these  * 'fixing  marks,"  which  differed,  of  course,  in  each 
new  system  of  phonetic  reading  that  flooded  the  school 
market.  The  only  difference  between  a  phonic  and  a 
phonetic  method  is  the  "fixing  signs,"  or  the  diacritical 
marks.  Reading  matter  took  the  form  of, 

bftjVe£  n^tborho^d,  laj/gh,  zinc,  sSf 

Estimate  of  Phonetic  Method. — It  is  obvious  that 
while  this  method  gains  by  fixing  the  variable  func- 
tions it  loses  by  increasing  the  number  of  symbols  al- 
most threefold.  It  makes  no  other  contribution  to  the 
phonic  method,  and  is,  therefore,  not  a  whit  above  it 
in  the  pedagogical  scale.  Fitch  and  Garlick,  among 
others,  find  fault  with  the  method  because,  they  argue, 
it  is  "illusive  and  postpones  the  real  difficulty."  When 
the  symbols  are  printed  the  child  can  read,  but  just  as 
soon  as  a  book  without  these  hieroglyphics  is  pre- 
sented, the  child  is  lost;  he  was  made  dependent  on  a 
set  of  aids.  This  argument  against  the  phonetic  meth- 
od is  not  borne  out  by  actual  practice,  nor  by  psy- 
chological evidence.  Children  who  for  two  years  have 
read  in  a  book  printed  with  all  the  diacritical  aids  will, 
when  given  a  page  without  these,  read  without  any  , 
notice  of  the  absence  of  the  auxiliary  marks.  This 
actual  result  finds  its  explanation  in  the  fact  that  we 
read  words  as  a  whole,  not  by  the  synthesis  of  com- 
ponent sounds  or  symbols.  In  the  final  analysis,  the 
phonetic  method  contributes  a  device,  not  a  rational 
system  of  reading. 

42 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 
THE  ANALYTIC  METHODS  * 

Essentials  of  a  Modern  Method — i.  A  Vital  Point  of 
Contact:  Reading  to  Begin  in  Real  Content. — All  syn- 
thetic methods,  whether  alphabetic,  phonic,  or  pho- 
netic, suffer  from  the  same  inherent  limitation  which 
militates  against  ultimate  success.  They  all  fail  to  real- 
ize that  reading  cannot  be  made  vital  to  children  unless 
it  begins  in  their  lives,  in  their  needs,  and  in  the  prob- 
lems that  present  themselves  for  urgent  solution.  No 
child  feels  an  urgent  craving  for  a  mastery  of  letters 
or  sounds ;  all  normal  children  are  consumed  by  a  de- 
sire for  the  story,  with  its  alluring  "once  upon  a  time." 
A  modern  method  of  reading  begins  with  a  language 
unit  that  represents  some  idea  or  image.  Just  what 
this  language  unit  shall  be  is  a  source  of  much  con- 
tention. To  some,  therefore,  the  word  is  a  proper  be- 
ginning; to  others,  the  sentence  with  its  complete 
thought  seems  a  more  rational  initiatory  step,  while  ta 
a  third  group,  the  story  must  be  the  means  of  intro- 
ducing the  child  to  the  art  of  reading.  Typical  of 
these  three  views,  we  find  the  Ward,  the  Farnham, 
and  the  McQoskey  methods,  respectively.  We  shall 
presently  turn  to  a  detailed  consideration  of  each  of 
these. 

1In  treating  these  methods  of  teaching  reading  to  beginners 
the  author  merely  suggests  the  underlying  principle,  the  gen- 
eral organization  and  an  estimate  of  each.  Teachers  and  super- 
visors who  desire  a  more  detailed  knowledge  of  any  of  these 
methods  must  secure  the  "Teachers'  Manual"  by  the  author  of 
the  respective  method  and  a  full  complement  of  the  primers 
and  the  readers. 

43 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

2.  Reading  an  Analytic  Process. — A  second  requis- 
ite of  a  modern  system  of  reading  is  that  it  should  be- 
gin by  a  method   of   "look  and   say."    The  child   is 
shown  a  word  or  a  sentence,  and  is  taught  to  recognize 
this,  not  by  a  synthesis  of  letters  or  sounds,  but  by  the 
appearance  of  words  as  wholes.    Reading  is  therefore 
analytic  in  its  nature. 

3.  Phonic  or  Phonetic  in  Its  Analytic  Development. 
— A  third  essential  insists  that,  after  the  mastery  of 
words  by  a  purely  sight  method,  the  child  should  learn 
the  sounds  of  the  symbols  that  are  used.    Whether  the 
method  be  phonic  or  phonetic,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  study  of  symbols  be  an  outgrowth  of  the 
stock  of  sight  words  that  the  child  mastered. 

A  method  of  reading  that  possesses  these  three  basic 
essentials  is  not  inevitably  a  satisfactory  one.  But  a 
method  that  violates  any  one  of  these  principles  is  so 
lacking  in  sound  pedagogical  organization  that  it 
makes  impossible  the  development  of  proper  habits 
in  reading. 

I.  The  Ward  or  Rational  Method  of  Beading.1 — i.  Un- 
derlying Principle. — The  Ward  Method  holds  that  a 
word  is  recognized  by  its  appearance  as  a  whole,  but 
words  are  also  the  unit  of  oral  speech ;  hence,  all  read- 
ing should  begin  by  a  mastery  of  a  stock  of  useful 
sight  words.  The  Ward  Method  is  frequently  adver- 
tised as  a  sentence  method.  While  it  can  readily  be 
turned  into  such,  we  must  remember  that  the  author 

1  EDWARD  G.  WARD.    The  Rational  Method  in  Reading,  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

44 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

of  the  method  says  in  his  manual:  "The  Rational 
Method  is  a  peculiar  combination  of  the  word  and  the 
phonetic  method.  .  .  .  The  word  method  is  used  first 
as  principal,  because  of  its  value  in  developing  a  habit 
of  thought-getting,  and  afterward  as  auxiliary/* 

2.  Organisation  of  the  Method. — In  its  general  or- 
ganization the  method  consists  of  four  parts:  (a) 
sight  reading;  (b)  the  phonetic  drill  and  the  blend; 
(c)  the  reading  in  books;  (d)  writing  and  spelling. 

a.  Sight  reading:    The  method  begins  by  teaching 
a  list  of  about  eighty  sight  words.     Typical  of  these 
are :  ail,  all,  old,  an,  and,  day,  ill,  take,  well,  and  boy. 
These  words  are  presented  in  script  on  the  blackboard, 
in  short  sentences.     These  sentences,  "I  see/'  "I  see 
you,"  etc.,  are  unrelated,  and  aim  merely  to  introduce 
the  words  which  are  always  focal.    The  words  selected 
are  such  as  will  lend  themselves  to  useful  and  varied 
word  drills.     The  drills  on  these  words  continue  for 
a  number  of  weeks  until  instantaneous  recognition  and 
permanent  fixation  have  resulted.     The  children  can 
now  read  these  words  from  lists  on  the  board,  from 
perception  cards,  or  in  sentences. 

b.  The  phonetic  drill  and  the  blend:    In  order  to 
teach  the  child  to  recognize  new  words  independently, 
the  phonetic  elements  are  then  introduced.    This  part 
of  the  lesson  begins  with  attempts  at  ear  training,  in 
which  the  phonetic  element  to  be  taught  is  introduced 
at  various  places  in  a  story.    The  phonogram,  e.  g.,  /, 
is  either  put  on  the  board  and  the  children  told  its 
sound,  or  the  sight  word  fold  is  subjected  to  analysis 

45 


t 
TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

and  the  children  made  to  recognize  that  the  word  has 
two  parts,  ////  being  the  first.  The  early  phonograms 
include  f,  I,  m,  n,  r}  s,  a,  e,  o,  ing,  ight. 

The  constructive  part  of  the  lesson  is  now  intro- 
duced. The  children,  knowing  the  sounds  of  m,  r,  s, 
h  i>  ight*.  are  taught  to  blend  these  into  might,  right, 
sight,  light,  fight\  etc.  After  the  phonogram  old  is 
learned  the  children  blend  old  elements  to  produce 
fold,  mold,  sold,  etc.  Thus  the  ear  is  trained,  oral 
speech  is  improved,  phonetic  elements  are  learned,  the 
power  for  independent  word  reading  is  given,  and  the 
basis  for  more  accurate  spelling  is  laid.  If  the  initial 
stock  of  sight  words  is  well  chosen,  the  child  has  at 
the  end  of  the  first  half-year  a  list  of  over  three  hun- 
dred words,  which  enable  him  to  read  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  ease,  stories  beyond  the  abilities  of  children 
who  were  taught  for  a  whole  year  by  a  synthetic 
method. 

c.  The  book:  At  the  beginning  all  work  is  limited 
to  script.  A  transition  is  now  made  to  the  print, 
either  by  associating  print  and  script  forms,  or  by 
associating  print  form  and  thought.  In  the  former 
procedure  the  teacher  puts  on  the  board, 


and  leads  the  children  from  the  known  script  to  the 
unknown  print.  In  the  latter  method,  the  teacher 
prints  on  the  board,  "I  see  you.  Do  you  see?",  and 

46 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

tells  the  children  what  these  symbols  represent.  They 
thus  learn  the  new  form,  print,  by  the  "look  and  say" 
method,  which  taught  them  the  original  form,  script. 
After  a  few  preliminary  transitional  drills,  the  chil- 
dren recognize  the  print  form  and  read  it  as  readily  as 
they  do  the  script. 

All  this  work  in  phonetics  is  taught  with  diacritical 
marks.  The  three  lines  of  work,  sight  words,  pho- 
netic analysis,  and  the  blend,  are  carried  on  through 
the  first  three  years.  In  the  early  part  of  the  second 
year  all  the  basic  phonograms  are  taught  and  supple- 
mentary readers  are  introduced.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  second  year  the  diacritical  marks  are  eliminated. 

d.  Writing  and  spelling:  Simultaneously  with  the 
reading  the  child  begins  his  writing  and  spelling.  The 
method  is  the  same  laborious  and  imitative  procedure 
that  is  prescribed  in  most  methods  of  primary  read- 
ing. It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  spelling  which 
is  purely  formal  and  has  no  relation  to  reading  should 
be  made  part  of  most  reading  methods.  The  inclusion 
of  writing  at  this  early  stage  is  justified  by  the  princi- 
ple of  motor  appeal  and  multiple  sense  teaching,  but 
the  attending  dangers  are  many.  Writing  entails,  too, 
many  delicate  movements,  and  too  fine  a  degree  of 
coordination  to  be  begun  without  a  specially  prepared 
series  of  graded  penmanship  drills,  designed  to  develop 
habits  of  correct  posture,  form,  control,  etc.  The  pen- 
manship drill  must  be  more  than  a  side  show  of  an 
ambitious  system  of  reading. 

3.  The  Readers. — As  is  to  be  expected,  a  method 
47 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

that  centralizes  all  effort  on  word  recognition  presents 
a  primer  that  is  dull,  meaningless,  and  often  inane. 
The  round  of  foolish  repetitions  of  the  Ward  primer 
reads,  "I  see,  I  see  you,  Do  see,  Do  see  me,  Do  you 
see  me?  Do  see  Jack,  What  ails  the  lock?"  etc.  But 
the  later  readers  and  the  supplementary  books  are  a 
pleasant  and  welcome  contrast. 

4.  Estimate  of  the  Ward  Method. — Despite  obvious 
limitations  the  Ward  Method  shows  a  step  in  the  right 
direction.  It  begins  with  that  part  of  language  which 
the  child  uses,  though  not  with  the  most  vital  element 
in  the  child's  speech.  It  fosters  independence  in  word 
recognition,  gives  training  in  better  articulation,  de- 
velops a  more  sensitive  ear,  aids  later  spelling,  and 
does  much  to  reduce  the  tedium  of  phonics  by  its 
careful  organization  and  gradation  of  the  mechanics 
of  reading.  But  we  must  remember  that  it  is  a  method 
that  is  mechanical  in  its  inception  and  mechanical  in 
its  whole  development,  It£  highest  aims  do  not  tran- 
scend word  recognition.  It  therefore  lacks  inspira- 
tion and  enthusiasm.  The  only  interest  it  arouses  is 
the  interest  that  the  pupil  feels  in  his  progress.  Huey, 
however,  says  that  it  is  the  "most  valuable  method  in 
effect  today,  though  not  in  line  with  the  changes  to 
be  urged  for  the  elementary  school."  / 

II.  The  Sentence  or  Farnham  Method.1 — i.  Underly- 
ing Principle. — All  sentence  methods  are  based  on  the 
principle  that,  in  reading,  as  in  all  perception,  a  unit 

1  FARNHAM.  "The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Reading," 
C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

48 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

is  recognized  as  a  whole,  and  not  by  a  synthesis  of  its 
composing  elements.  If  reading  is  a  process  of 
thought-getting  and  thinking,  then  the  unit  must  be 
an  idea.  But  the  language  expression  of  a  unit  of 
thought  is  a  sentence ;  hence  rational  reading  must  be- 
gin by  teaching  children  to  read  sentences. 

The  sentence  method  found  its  advocates  in  Come- 
nius  and  Jacotot.  Not  until  1885-1890  did  it  gain 
currency  in  the  United  States  through  the  efforts  of 
Farnham. 

2.  The  Method. — As  elaborated  by  Farnham,  the 
sentence  method  entails  a  procedure  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows :  The  teacher  makes  sure  of  a  thought  basis  for 
reading  by  talking  about  a  number  of  objects  on  her 
desk.  "What  is  this?"  she  asks,  holding  up  a  pen, 
and  the  child  answers,  "This  is  a  pen."  What  have 
you?"  she  asks,  as  she  makes  the  child  tjjce  the  next 
object,  and  the  child  replies :  "I  have  a  knife."  After 
a  few  periods  of  this  concrete  language  work,  the 
teacher  writes  on  the  board  the  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions, and  tells  the  children  that  she  has  written  what 
they  said.  Every  child  knows,  therefore,  that  the  first 
sentence  reads,  "This  is  a  pen,"  and  the  second,  "I 
have  a  knife."  The  teacher  now  secures  smooth  and 
easy  reading  of  these  two  sentences.  She  points  to 
the  one  and  then  to  the  other,  and  requires  the  chil- 
dren to  give  evidence  of  the  idea  in  each  by  action 
rather  than  by  reading.  The  nouns  and  the  pronouns 
are  now  changed ;  the  verbs  give  way  to  others  equally 
appropriate,  until  the  children  can  read  a  number  of 

49 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

sentences  and  recognize  a  long  list  of  useful  words. 
In  this  way  the  child  acquires  a  stock  of  sight  words. 

3.  Estimate  of  the  Sentence  Method. — A  cursory 
examination  of  this  outline  of  the  method  reveals  its 
weaknesses.    The  daily  lessons  lack  system  and  grada- 
tion; the  sentences  are  insipid  and  absolutely  unre- 
lated to  the  child's  life.     What  urgency  is  there  to 
read,  "This  is  a  pen"  ?    The  method  boasts  of  its  em- 
phasis on  the  objective,  but  the  practical  teacher  real- 
izes that  it  is  a  stupid  and  unnecessary  use  of  a  con- 
crete method.    Children  who  do  not  know  such  words 
as  pen,  knife,  I,  you,  etc.,  should  be  taught  oral  Eng- 
lish, not  reading.     Farnham  himself  tells  us  that  in 
this  method  "the  teacher's  faith  and  patience  may  be 
severely  tried."    The  sentence  method  teaches  us  that 
correct  reading  is  reading  for  thought,  but  in  its  prac- 
tical application  it  becomes  as  uninspirational  as  the 
Ward  Method,  but  without  the  compensating  skilful 
and   careful   gradation.      In   the   final   analysis,   the 
method  is  merely  an  introductory  device,  for  it  must 
soon  fall  back  on  phonic  drills  in  its  endeavor  to  teach 
independent  word  recognition. 

4.  Modified  Sentence  Methods. — Huey  and  McMur- 
ry  and  other  writers  have  urged  modifications  of  the 
unrelated  sentence  method.    They  advise  the  selection 
of  some  central  theme  for  the  day's  reading  text.    If 
the  children  have  enjoyed  unusual  exercises  in  their 
morning  assembly  this  circumstance  is  made  the  theme 
for  oral  composition  and  self-expression.    At  the  end 
of  the  period  the  whole  discussion  is  summarized  in 

50 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

five  or  six  short  related  sentences.  These  are  put  on 
the  blackboard,  and  the  class  has  a  living  and  interest- 
ing reading  text.  The  suggestion  is  valuable,  for  the 
most  enthusiastic  reading  lessons  are  often  not  in  the 
book,  but  find  their  authorship  in  the  class  or  the 
teacher.  But  here,  too,  we  have  only  a  suggestion 
worthy  of  occasional  application,  and  not  a  general 
method,  for  there  is  no  guarantee  of  either  systema- 
tized and  progressive  work,  or  of  an  ability  to  recog- 
nize new  words  independently. 

HI.  The  McCloskey  Method:  The  Story  Method.1-— 
i.  The  Plea  for  the  Story. — A  system  of  reading 
whose  systematic  and  graded  organization  and  whose 
serious  application  of  all  sound  principles  of  reading 
give  it  the  dignity  of  a  true  method,  was  elaborated  by 
Miss  Margaret  McCloskey.  The  method  begins  with 
an  eloquent  plea  for  literary  appreciation.  It  studies 
the  child  at  the  age  when  school  life  begins,  and  finds 
him  at  a  stage  in  his  language  development  that  is 
characterized  by  an  almost  insatiable  craving  for  the 
story,  by  an  imagination  that  glows  in  rich  imagery 
and  lives  in  fantastic  environs  of  its  own  making. 
The  child  approaches  the  reading  book,  the  source  of 
new  stories,  with  all  the  anticipation  that  he  would 
feel  for  a  gift.  How  bitter  must  be  the  disappoint- 
ment when  the  child  finds  in  his  primer,  "Oh,  see  the 
cat,  the  black  cat,"  or  "Hop  and  skip,"  "Skip  and 
hop,"  "Run  and  jump."  If  the  teacher  seeks  to  re- 
fine the  emotions  of  the  child  and  cultivate  its  imagina- 

'MAKCARET  MCCLOSKEY.    "McCloskey  Primer,"  Ginn  &  Co. 

51 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

tion,  then  she  must  begin  the  reading  lessons  with  a 
story  that  has  literary  worth. 

2.  The  Story  as  the  Initial  Step  in  the  Reading 
Method. — The  McCloskey  Method  begins  its  series  of 
reading  lessons  with  a  cumulative  tale  that  delights 
the  child  with  its  round  of  rhythmic  repetitions.  The 
teacher  prepares  the  children  for  the  story  of  the  kid 
that  "my  father  bought  for  two  pieces  of  money,"  and 
for  the  chain  of  tragedies  in  which  the  cat  ate  the 
kid  but  was  in  turn  bitten  by  the  dog  which  was  hit 
by  the  stick  which  was  burned  by  the  fire  that  was 
put  out  by  the  water  which  was  drunk  by  the  ox  which 
paid  the  final  penalty  when  the  butcher  slew  him.  The 
informal  narrative  is  followed  later  in  the  day  by  the 
formal  story  with  its  rhythmic  repetitions  of, 

A  kid,  a  kid,  my  father  bought 
For  two  pieces  of  money. 

A  kid,  a  kid. 

Then  came  the  cat  and  ate  the  kid 
That  my  father  bought 
For  two  pieces  of  money,  etc. 

A  kid,  a  kid. 

These  lines  are  repeated  frequently.  By  competi- 
tive devices,  dramatizations  and  recitations,  the  inter- 
est is  kept  up  in  the  story  until  it  is  known  by  heart. 

The  teacher  now  suggests  the  pleasure  of  reading 
such  a  story  by  oneself,  and  thus  offers  motive  for  the 
first  reading  lesson.  The  first  sentence  is  put  on  the 
blackboard  and  the  children  who  know  it  are  invited  to 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

read  what  was  written.  After  easy  and  smooth  rendi- 
tion is  secured,  the  pupils  learn  to  recognize  father 
by  its  place  in  the  context,  then  by  comparing  the  word 
father,  written  in  the  corner  of  the  board,  with  the 
full  sentence,  and  finally  when  it  is  shown  on  a  per- 
ception card  by  itself.  The  other  words  are  taught  in 
the  same  way  until  the  children  can  read  any  sentence 
containing  these  words,  e.  g.,  "For  two  pieces  of 
money  my  father  bought  a  kid" ;  "The  cat  ate  the  kid," 
etc.  The  round  of  repetitions  gives  plenty  of  drill, 
yet  the  children  are  not  kept  too  long  on  one  sentence. 
After  the  first  story  is  thus  mastered,  word  by  word, 
two  other  cumulative  tales  are  taught  in  the  same  way 
before  the  end  of  the  first  half  year.  The  children 
are  now  the  proud  possessors  of  an  enviable  reading 
vocabulary.  If  the  teacher  will  list  all  the  words  in 
these  three  stories  and  then  do  the  same  to  any  story 
found  in  a  synthetic  method  third  reader,  she  will  find 
that  the  children  know  a  stock  of  sight  words  that 
enable  them  to  read  the  story  she  selected. 

3.  The  Transition  to  the  Book. — The  McCloskey 
Method  seeks  only  one  form  of  association  in  reading, 
viz.,  symbol  and  thought.  It  is  therefore  opposed  to 
making  the  transition  from  script  to  print  by  compar- 
ing the  two  as  is  done  in  the  Ward  Method.  It  pre- 
sents the  story  of  "The  Kid"  in  print,  and  teaches  the 
child  to  read  this  new  form  in  the  same  way  as  he 
learned  the  script.  Most  authorities  sanction  both 
forms  of  transition,  i.  e.,  through  association  of  sym- 
bol and  idea,  and  through  association  of  script  and 

53 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

print,  just  as  they  approve  beginning  with  either  print 
or  script,  since  each  has  its  advantages.  The  only  re- 
striction that  must  be  made  is  the  simultaneous  presen- 
tation of  print  and  script,  for  the  child  is  bewildered 
by  the  multiplicity  of  symbols. 

4.  Phonics. — We  have   seen,   thus    far,   how  this 
method  makes  reading  a  process  of  thinking  and  em- 
phasizes   content    rather    than    form.       The    author 
of  the  method  realizes  the  need  of  phonic  work  that 
gives  the  ability  to  recognize  new  words,  and  results 
in  better  articulation  and  sharper  auditory  perceptions. 
With  this  end  in  view,  the  sight  words  that  are  known 
are  analyzed  and  the  phonograms  carefully  taught. 
Man  gives  m  and  an;  rat  gives  r  and  at.  *  The  child  is 
now  required  to  form  his  own  blends  of  these  phono- 
grams to  produce  the  words  ran  and  mat.    The  work 
in  phonics  is  well  graded  and  thoroughly  organized  for 
the  teacher.     The  method  is  therefore  well  balanced, 
for  it  realizes  the  coordinate  position  that  must  be 
accorded  to  the  content  and  the  mechanical  aim  in 
reading. 

5.  Language   Lessons. — A    final   endeavor   of    the 
McCloskey  Method  seeks  to  establish  an  intimate  cor- 
relation between  reading  and  oral  and  written  lan- 
guage work.    After  the  third  story  is  well  known  an 
interesting  topic  is  selected  from  the  reading  matter, 
or  the  child's  experience,  and  is  used  for  oral  com- 
position.    The  topic  is  then  summarized   in  a  few 
sentences,  which  contain  the  words  that  the  children 
learned  in  the  course  of  the  reading.     By  suggesting 

54 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

the  desirability  of  being  able  to  write  the  subject  of 
the  day's  lesson  to  a  friend,  the  teacher  motivates  the 
first  lesson  in  written  composition.  The  introductory 
sentence  is  written  on  the  board  in  large,  clear  charac- 
ters, and  the  modus  operandi  is  explained.  After  giv- 
ing a  vivid  visual  impression,  the  sentence  is  erased 
and  volunteers  are  called  upon  to  write  the  sentence. 
In  case  no  child  is  ready,  the  same  sentence  is  again 
written  on  the  board,  explained  and  erased  until  some 
children  can  reproduce  it  from  memory.  A  pupil  who 
errs  in  any  letter  or  word  must  erase  his  effort  and 
try  over  again  until  the  sentence  is  written  as  a  whole, 
correct  in  every  respect.  At  the  end  of  the  first  period, 
only  two  or  three  successful  efforts  may  be  found.  At 
the  end  of  the  third  lesson,  about  twenty  children  can 
write  the  introductory  sentence.  The  work  continues 
in  the  same  imitative  manner,  seeking  direct  associa- 
tion between  symbol  and  idea  until  the  children  can 
write  the  whole  composition.  A  foreign-born  gradu- 
ate of  the  i A  class  is  the  proud  author  of  the  follow- 
ing composition: 

THE  LITTLE  HEN 

One  day  a  little  red  hen  found  corn.  She  asked  the 
cat  to  help  her  plant  the  corn.  Then  she  asked  the  rat, 
the  dog  and  the  pig.  All  of  them  would  not  help  her  so 
she  did  it  herself.  She  asked  them  to  help  her  water 
the  corn  but  they  would  not.  Wheft  the  meal  was  baked 
into  bread  they  all  wanted  to  eat  it.  But  the  little  red 
hen  said,  "No!  you  cannot  help  me  eat  it;  I  can  eat  it 
myself." 

55 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

Although  the  child  knows  no  letters  by  name,  and 
cannot  justify  the  various  punctuation  signs,  capitals, 
indentations,  etc.,  he  is  learning  to  use  symbols  as 
means  of  expressing  his  thought.  But  the  teacher 
must  not  forget  the  caution  that  was  urged  in  the 
study  of  the  Ward  Method,  for  such  premature  ef- 
forts at  writing  may  lead  to  the  development  of  most 
objectionable  habits  in  penmanship.1 

6.  Estimate  of  the  McCloskey  Method. — To  answer 
the  skeptic  who  doubts  the  efficacy  of  such  a  method, 
we  must  urge  pragmatic  proof.  This  method  is  doing 
excellent  work  in  foreign  sections  of  Newark,  its  peda- 
gogical birthplace,  and  in  New  York.  Teachers  who 
conceive  the  ultimate  aim  of  reading  to  be  literary  ap- 
preciation must  approve  this  system.  But  the  formal^ 
ists,  on  the  other  hand,  can  pick  no  quarrel  with  such 
a  method,  for  its  emphasis  on  phonic  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis guarantees  as  great  a  mastery  of  the  symbols  of 
reading  as  any  purely  mechanical  method  like  the 
Ward.  The  strength  of  the  McCloskey  Method  lies 
in  its  proportionate  emphasis  of«  the  two  basic  aims 
of  reading  and  its  skilful  application  of  modern  read- 
ing standards.  From  a  narrower  aspect,  this  method 
is  not  free  from  faults.  Teachers  complain  that  they 
are  handicapped  because  the  method  is  not  developed 
beyond  the  work  for  the  initial  year.  The  absence  of 
a  printed  manual  entails  unnecessary  work  by  teachers. 
The  content  is  often  ill  adapted  to  the  foreign-born 
city  child,  whose  words  are  few  and  whose  compre* 
1  See  page  47. 

56 


THE  BASIC  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

hension  lies  wholly  within  urban  topics.  The  McClos- 
key  Primer  uses  quench,  shaven  and  shorn,  forlorn, 
tattered  and  torn — expressions  beyond  the  pale  of 
such  children's  vocabularies.  The  stories  tell  almost 
exclusively  of  country  themes  that  are  not  within  the 
scope  of  these  children's  experience.  Not  one  child  in 
fifty  in  a  school  in  a  foreign  section  of  New  York 
knew  any  but  the  slang  meaning  of  "A  kid."  Th<*se 
mechanical  limitations  in  the  organization  of  the 
method  have  left  gaps  that  other  reading  systems  have 
very  successfully  bridged.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  "Progressive  Road  to  Reading"  bids  fair  to>  sup- 
plant the  Newark  system  in  New  York  City  schools. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.     Teaching  of  English, 

98-121. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.    Method  and  Methods  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  English,  chap.  II.    D.  C.  Heath  &  ^o. 
HALL,  G.  STANLEY.     How  to  Teach  Reading.     D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co. 
HUEY,  E.  B.    Psychology   and   Pedagogy   of   Reading, 

chaps.  X,  XI,  XII. 
LAING,  MARY  E.     Reading,   a   Manual    for   Teachers, 

chaps.  VIII,  IX. 
McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.    Special  Method  in  Reading  for 

the  Grades.    The  Macmillan  Co. 
TAYLOR,  J.   S.     Principles  and   Methods  of  Teaching 

Reading,  chap.  V,  109-127. 
TEACHERS'  COLLEGE  RECORD.    January  and  September, 

1906. 

57 


CHAPTER  VI 

SPECIAL    MODERN     METHODS    OF    PRIMARY    READING1 

Summary. — The  last  chapter  traced  the  evolution  of 
modern  methods  of  teaching  primary  children  to  read. 
The  path  is  long  and  circuitous,  with  many  pitfalls  and 
discouraging  features  to  both  children  and  teacher. 
The  synthetic  methods  made  reading  a  purely  mechan- 
ical process,  and  sought  to  give  the  child  a  perfect 
mastery  of  symbols.  To  accomplish  this  end,  they 
began  reading  with  a  study  of  the  alphabet,  or  the 
sounds  of  the  alphabet.  Syllables,  phonograms,  single 
letters, — all  were  fused  into  words  as  soon  as  possible. 
Early  reading  began,  not  with  real  content  and  thought 
appeal  which  give  to  language  a  throb  of  life,  but  with 
letters  and  phonograms,  the  static,  stupid  phase  of 
speech.  The  child's  mind  was  occupied  with  the  prob- 
lems of  first  recognizing  the  phonograms  and  then 
synthesizing  them  into  real  words.  When  these  two 

1  In  treating  these  methods  of  teaching  reading  to  beginners 
the  author  merely  suggests  the  underlying  principle,  the  gen- 
eral organization  and  an  estimate  of  each.  Teachers  and  super- 
visors who  desire  a  more  detailed  knowledge  of  any  of  these 
methods  must  secure  the  "Teachers*  Manual"  by  the  author  of 
the  respective  method  and  a  full  complement  of  the  primers 
and  the  readers. 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

processes  became  habit,  real  reading,  reading  for 
thought,  was  introduced.  But  the  exclusive  attention 
to  word  forms  and  elements  of  words,  the  unrelenting 
drills  on  synthesizing  the  mechanics  of  written  lan- 
guage made  reading  so  thoroughly  formal  that  true 
reading,  reading  for  thought,  was  almost  completely 
undermined. 

These  methods  soon  caused  a  reaction  when  applied 
by  intelligent  teachers.  The  habits  in  reading  that  the 
children  were  developing  were  so  positively  detrimen- 
tal that  methods  diametrically  opposed  to  these  syn- 
thetic systems  were  evolved.  Reading  was  now  made 
an  analytical  process;  it  began  with  words,  or  larger 
language  units,  and  only  when  these  were  mastered, 
were  the  study  of  word  formation  and  the  independent 
recognition  of  new  words  taught  by  analyzing  the 
sight  words  already  known.  But  mastery  of  sight 
words,  reading  of  isolated  words,  soon  became  as  mo- 
notonous and  inane  as  the  reading  of  syllables  and 
phonograms.  The  desire  for  thoughtful,  expressive 
reading  from  the  very  beginning  brought  a  sentence 
method  and  finally  a  story  method.  Only  when  the 
child  can  read  the  sentences  naturally  and  feelingly  is 
he  taught  the  component  words.  But,  in  reading,  the 
sentence  is  never  subordinated  to  the  words  in  it. 
The  child  is  never  allowed  to  read  a  sentence  unless 
he  has  read  it  silently,  has  asked  about  any  word 
that  puzzles  him.  There  must  be  no  hesitation,  no 
loss  of  thought.  The  words  read  at  sight  in  sentences 
are  then  taken  up,  analyzed  into  their  component 

59 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO   READ 

sounds  and  the  mechanics  of  reading  taught  in  special 
drills. 

Modern  Methods  Tabulated. — In  the  evolution  of  pri- 
mary methods  that  was  traced  in  the  last  chapter,  we 
considered  the  alphabetic,  the  phonic,  the  phonetic,  the 
word,  the  sentence,  and  the  story  methods;  all  these 
passed  in  review,  each  making  its  contribution  toward 
the  correct  method  of  teaching,  each  typifying  some 
tendency,  each  embodying  a  definite  principle.  These 
methods  are  the  units ;  they  reflect  the  types.  The  list 
of  present-day  reading  methods  is  long  and  varied,  but 
each  reading  system  is  either  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  of  the  basic  methods  studied  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  or  a  modification  and  elaboration  of  some  one 
of  them.  The  following  table  attempts  to  classify  the 
more  popular  of  the  modern  methods  of  teaching 
children  to  read.  The  system  of  grouping  is  the 
same  as  that  offered  in  the  table  on  page  36,  and 
therefore  needs  no  explanation.  A  careful  analysis 
by  the  student  of  the  table  on  page  61  is  now  ad- 
visable. 

Emma  K.  Gordon  Method.1 — From  the  table  it  can  be 
seen  that  no  system  of  reading  brought  out  by  enthusi- 
astic teachers  can  claim  the  honor  of  absolute  original- 
ity. The  Emma  K.  Gordon  "Comprehensive  Method" 
and  Pollard's  "Synthetic  Method  of  Reading  and 
Spelling"  have  little  in  them  that  was  not  noted  in 
the  analysis  of  a  purely  synthetic  phonic  or  phonetic 

*EMMA  K.  GORDON.  Comprehensive  Method  of  Teaching 
Reading,  D.  C  Heath  &  Co.,  1902. 

60 


MODERN  METHODS   OF  PRIMARY  READING 

MODERN  METHODS  OF  PRIMARY  RXADIMG 


Synthetic  Methods 

Analytical  Method! 

Phonic 

Phonetic 

Formal 

Thought 

Gordon 
NewEduc. 

Pollard 

*v 

Word 

Sentence  Unit 

Story  Unit 

—  *Ward 

Farnham 

McCloskey  or 
Newark 

^         tSum 

men        > 

Road 

i 

Natural  Method 
or  Culture 
Primers 

<        tHorace 
Read 

Mann 

•<        tFinger 

Play  >- 

~<  tAl 

dine  ••'    > 

•  A  combination  word  and  phonetic  method. 
t  A  cross  between  a  word  and  a  sentence  method. 

j  May  be  classified  as  either  sentence  or  story  method  because  the  sentences 
or  rhymes  are  more  or  less  related  in  thought. 

method.  The  former  begins  its  system  with  the  belief 
that  "thorough  work  in  phonics  lies  at  the  base  of  all 
rational  teaching  of  reading,"  and  shows  the  teacher 
how  to  carry  out  a  severely  phonic  and  syntnetic 
method.  It  boasts  of  its  contempt  for  diacritical 
marks,  of  its  emphasis  on  family  words,  like  "talk," 
"chalk,"  "walk,"  "balk,"  of  its  phonic  games  which  are 
only  revivals  of  those  played  by  Ickelsamer's  children 
in  the  days  of  1534.  It  fails  to  see  that  it  cannot  be 
a  "comprehensive  method"  if  it  emphasizes  form  to 
the  exclusion  of  thought. 
Pollard'i  Synthetic  Metkod.1— -In  Pollard's  "Synthetic 

1  REBECCA  S.  POLLARD.    Pollard's  Synthetic  Method  of  Reading 
and  Spelling,  American  Book  Co.,  1889. 

6r 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

Method  of  Reading  and  Spelling,"  one  finds  a  method 
that  is  purely  phonetic,  "almost  arrogantly  so."  The 
mechanical  mastery  of  words;  the  constant  use  of  dia- 
critical marks;  the  use  of  sound  games  and  phonic 
pictures  (/is  the  symbol  of  cats  at  war,  sh  of  a 
child  being  put  to  sleep)  ;  the  personification  of  the 
letters  (small  letters  are  boys,  while  capitals  are  men, 
etc. )  ;  all  these  are  typical  of  the  archaic  devices  and 
organization  to  which  this  method  has  constant  re- 
course. 

Estimate  of  Gordon  and  Pollard  Methods. — Both 
these  methods  can  teach  children  to  read.  But  any 
method,  or  even  no  method,  can ;  hence  ultimate  ability 
to  read  words  and  sentences  is  no  criterion.  "How 
agreeably,  how  thoughtfully,  how  naturally,  how 
quickly  can  they  do  so?"  are  the  questions  that  must 
be  answered.  Despite  the  fact  that  these  methods  are 
(i)  systematic,  (2)  well  graded,  (3)  capable  of  teach- 
ing children  how  to  attack  new  words,  (4)  good  for 
ear  training  and  articulation  drills,  we  reject  them  be- 
cause they  are  artificial,  with  a  reading  matter  that  is 
flat,  stupid  and  disjointed,  and  because,  in  their  em- 
phasis on  reading  as  a  synthetic  process,  phonic  read- 
ing before  word  or  sentence  reading,  they  are  destruc- 
tive of  the  right  habits  of  reading. 

The  New  Education  Method. — This  system  of  read- 
ing is  an  excellent  example  of  a  modern  svnthetic 
method.  Its  sponsors  claim  for  it  the  dubious  honor 
of  being  the  "best  of  the  old,"  and  give  assurance  that 
it  "will  teach  the  child  to  read."  But  "to  read"  is 

62 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

made  to  mean  by  them  "ability  at  instant  recognition 
of  symbols."  The  method  begins  with  a  drill  in  con- 
sonants, for  they  are  fixed  in  sound.  When  the  child 
knows  the  phonic  function  of  all  consonants  he  is 
taught  a  list  of  sight  words  for  a  mastery  of  vowels 
and  their  changing  function  in  varied  combinations. 
The  method  then  emphasizes  the  art  of  blending;  it 
shows  the  child  how  ight  from  fight  and  s  from  sit 
give  sight.  This  mastery  of  technique  is  followed  by 
a  reading  of  sentences  for  expression.  There  is  noth- 
ing "new"  nor  "educational"  in  the  method.  It  is  a 
well  systematized  and  graded  synthetic  organization 
that  militates  against  the  acquisition  of  necessary 
habits  in  thoughtful  reading. 

The  Mand  Summers  Method.1 — This  method  is  more 
pretentious  and  more  modern.  It  endeavors  to  attain 
a  literary  level,  to  teach  language,  to  make  reading  a 
pleasurable  process,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  the  mas- 
tery of  symbols.  Its  intentions  are  meritorious,  but 
its  practical  organization  often  fails  to  reach  this  high 
level. 

Underlying  Principle  of  the  Summers  Method. — 
The  method  is  based  on  three  educational  principles, 
which  it  persistently  tries  to  carry  out:  (i)  Images 
are  necessary.  The  child  must  have  clear  images  of 
his  natural  environment,  of  the  elements  and  condi- 
tions mentioned  in  the  reading  matter,  otherwise  the 
verbal  symbols  fail  to  symbolize  anything  rational. 

*MAUD  SUMMERS.  The  Summers  Method,  Frank  D.  Beattys 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  1908. 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

(2)  The  mind  recognises  the  whole  of  things  before 
its  parts.     The  order  of  teaching  must  therefore  be 
sentences  before  words,  and  words  before  phonograms. 

(3)  The  self-activity  of  the  child  must  always  be 
aroused.    It  is  the  active  cooperation  of  the  child,  the 
continued  expression  of  his  self -activity  which  will 
determine  not  only  the  thought  he  acquires,  but  also 
the  mastery  of  symbols  that  will  be  developed.    These 
principles  determine  the  organization  of  the  method 

;  The  Organization  of  the  Summers  Method. — The 
method  has  two  important  elements :  the  thought  and 
symbols  in  reading. 

The  thought  is  the  most  vital  factor  in  reading,  for 
the  ability  to  associate  symbol  and  idea  is  determined 
by  the  value  and  the  interest  which  the  idea  has  for 
the  child.  Thought  is  emphasized  through:  (i)  Ac- 
tion sentences.  Dramatization  is  the  important  contri- 
bution of  this  method.  Since  the  child  is  an  intensely 
motor  animal,  he  enjoys  acting  out  his  ideas.  The 
words  and  sentences  that  begin  this  method  are  such 
as  abound  in  children's  games.  (2)  Nursery  rhymes 
form  a  second  important  part  of  the  content  of  primer 
and  blackboard  reading.  Children  have  a  rhythmic 
sense  that  is  unmistakable  in  their  games,  their  songs, 
etc.  Poetry  for  the  child  must  not  only  be  rhythmic, 
but  it  must  breathe  mystery  to  stir  his  imagination. 
Nursery  and  nonsense  rhymes  fulfil  both  of  these  con- 
ditions. They  are  learned  and  recited  because  they 
train  in  good  articulation,  cultivate  a  cadence  in  lan- 
guage, and  afford  pleasurable  reading  matter.  (3)  To 

64 


MODERN   METHODS   OF  PRIMARY  READING 

keep  thought  in  reading  uppermost,  this  method  makes 
observational  lessons  part  of  the  method.  What  the 
children  see  and  do  in  their  nature-study  lessons  and 
in  the  manual  training  periods  is  made  the  topic  for 
discussion.  This  is  summarized  and  becomes  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  the  reading  lesson  from  the  blackboard. 
The  books  are  replete  with  illustrations  of  artistic 
merit,  in  the  hope  of  making  thought  and  action  clear. 
(4)  The  method,  in  its  literary  endeavor,  assigns  regu- 
lar "Readings  by  the  Teacher  to  the  Class"  of  those 
stories  that  form  the  literary  heritage  of  the  race.  The 
children  listen  to  these,  repeat  them,  dramatize  them, 
and  read  them,  in  summarized  forms,  from  the  black- 
board. 

The  second  element  of  the  method  deals  with  the 
"symbols  in  reading."  Although  the  Summers  meth- 
od attempts  to  attain  a  literary  level,  it  does  not  neg- 
lect the  mastery  of  phonograms,  which  it  regards  as 
coordinate  with  thought  acquisition.  The  method 
therefore  emphasizes  voice  and  ear  training,  drills  in 
phonic  analysis  of  sight  words,  practice  in  synthesizing 
known  phonograms,  careful  gradation  and  progressive 
repetitions  in  word  building — in  short,  the  varied 
forms  of  exercises  designed  to  develop  mastery  in  the 
mechanics  of  reading. 

Estimate  of  Summers  Method. — Despite  all  its  em- 
phasis on  thought,  this  system  starts  by  teaching  chil- 
dren a  list  of  sight  words,  like  "run,"  "play,"  "jump," 
"hop/  words  that  can  be  dramatized  and  used  for 
word-building  later  on.  The  early  reading  lacks  the 

65 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

natural  and  interesting  content  found  in  later  lessons, 
and  busies  itself  with  such  repetitions  as  "Run  and 
jump,"  "Sing  and  jump/'  "Run  and  sing,"  or  "Jack, 
run  and  sing,"  "I  run  and  sing,"  etc.  Its  dramatiza- 
tion often  saves  it  from  becoming  nothing  more  than 
a  weary  word  method. 

The  Aldine  System.1 — Basic  Principle. — This  meth- 
od, organized  by  Spalding  and  Bryce,  is  another  sys- 
tem based  on  the  simple  principle  that  reading 
is  a  process  of  thinking  which  must  leave  the  child 
richer  in  thought  and  knowledge.  In  actual  organi- 
zation it  wavers  between  a  sentence  and  a  story 
method. 

Organisation  of  the  Aldine  Method. — This  method 
may  be  divided  into  five  principal  elements :  ( I )  the 
story  introducing  the  rhyme,  (2)  the  reading  of  the 
rhyme,  (3)  the  study  of  the  picture,  (4)  dramatiza- 
tion, (5)  phonic  analysis  and  blend. 

I.  The  story  introducing  the  rhyme:  Progress  in 
the  Aldine  Method  is  measured  by  the  complete  mas- 
tery of  a  set  of  rhymes  used  for  reading,  language 
lessons,  dramatizations,  phonics  and  word-building. 
The  rhyme  is  introduced  through  a  story  which  the 
teacher  tells  the  children ;  the  story  gives  an  interesting 
background  to  the  rhyme,  suggests  it  a  number  of 
times,  but  the  tale  is  not  memorized  as  in  the  McClos- 
key  Method.  The  first  rhyme  is  introduced  by  the 
following  story,  told  by  the  teacher : 

1  SPALDING  AND  BRYCE.     The  Aldine  Readers,  Newson  &  Co., 
N.  Y,  1907. 

66 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

THE  SPRING  STORY 

Once  upon  a  time  a  little  boy  and  his  sister  asked 
their  mother  if  they  might  have  some  money  and  go  to 
the  store  and  buy  some  candy. 

"No,  dears,"  answered  Mother,  "I  think  you  have  had 
all  the  candy  that  is  good  for  you  to-day.  Run  outdoors 
and  play." 

Out  walked  the  two  children  and  sat  down  on  the 
porch. 

"I  don't  want  to  play,"  growled  the  boy. 

"I  think  we  might  just  have  a  little  candy,"  whined 
the  girl.  So  they  sat  on  the  porch  and  pouted. 

The  little  birds  flew  from  tree  to  tree,  building  their 
nests  and  singing.  They  were  so  happy  because  Spring 
had  come. 

The  squirrels  frisked  and  chattered  on  the  lawn.  They, 
too,  were  glad  the  winter  was  over. 

Even  the  yellow  daffodils  in  the  garden  looked  up  and 
smiled  at  the  warm  sun. 

Everyone  seemed  happy  but  our  pouting  boy  and 
girl. 

Along  the  street  came  a  crowd  of  boys  and  girls,  run- 
ning, laughing  and  shouting.  They  were  just  as  happy 
as  the  birds  and  squirrels. 

When  they  saw  the  cross  little  boy  and  girl,  they 
shouted :  "Stop  pouting.  Don't  you  know  Spring  is  here  ? 
Now  is  the  time  to  play  and  be  glad." 

Then  a  big  girl,  who  was  leading,  called : 

"Come  away, 
Come  and  play." 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 
All  the  children  took  up  the  cry,  and  shouted: 

"Come  away, 
Come  and  play." 

They  were  having  such  a  good  time  that  our  boy  and 
girl  could  feel  cross  no  longer.  Smiles  chased  the  frowns 
irom  their  faces.  They  jumped  up  and  ran  off  with  the 
other  children,  laughing  and  singing : 

"Come  away, 
Come  and  play." 

2.  The  reading  of  the  rhyme:    The  rhyme  is  now 
memorized,  read  in  script  from  the  board,  from  printed 
charts  and  from  cards  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  chil- 
dren.   "Come  away,  Come  and  play,"  "Run  with  me, 
To  the  tree,"  etc.,  are  examples.     The  reading  must 
be  smooth,  easy,  rapid  and  thoughtful. 

3.  The  study  of  the  picture:    To  make  the  thought 
stand  out  more  vividly  each  lesson  has  its  picture. 
These  children  are  allowed  to  study  in  an  attempt  to 
infer  the  story.    The  pictures  are  artistic  and  are  thus 
a  source  of  keen  pleasure.    Detailed  questions,  asked 
by  the  teacher,  elicit  a  series  of  answers  which  give 
thought  background  to  the  rhyme  and  serve  as  exer- 
cises in  oral  composition. 

4.  Dramatization:    To  make  the  reading  more  nat- 
ural, and  prevent  stilted  classroom  rendition,  every 
stanza  is  dramatized  as  it  is  read.    In  the  case  of  the 
first  rhyme,  "Come  away,  Come  and  play,"  one  pupil 
is  designated  as  a  leader.     This  child  skips  through 

68 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

the  aisles,  choosing  his  companions  by  touching  each 
and  calling,  "Come  away,  Come  and  play." 

5.  Phonic  analysis  and  blend. — The  sight  words 
thus  learned  through  the  rhymes  are  now  analyzed, 
and  thus  become  a  valuable  basis  for  phonetic  drills. 
The  consonants  are  taught  separately  by  consonant 
cards,  in  association  with  a  sight  word;  one  side  of 
the  card  is  \  «•""  |  and  the  reverse  side  is  [  *  ]. 
If  the  child  cannot  sound  R,  he  is  shown  the  side  that 
has  the  word  "run"  on  it.  The  vowels,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  not  taught  alone,  since  they  vary  and  take 
their  jound  from  the  group  in  which  they  are  found. 
From  the  stock  of  initial  sight  words  the  children  build 
a  list  four  or  five  times  as  long  as  the  original  one; 
thus,  the  ome  of  come  enables  them  to  get  some  and 
likewise  run  gives  gun,  fun,  sun,  etc,  They  also  learn 
to  analyze  new  words  phonetically.  The  method  is 
exceedingly  well  organized,  moves  along  rapidly,  and 
has  a  complete  equipment  of  reading  charts,  phonic 
charts,  etc.,  which  are  not  only  designed  for  class 
reading,  but  also  for  profitable  individual  seat  work. 

Estimate  of  the  Aldine  Method. — An  analysis  of  the 
organization  of  this  Aldine  system  shows  that  it  is  a 
skillful  attempt  to  embody  all  those  principles  which 
seek  to  make  reading  synonymous  with  thought  get- 
ting. It  begins  at  the  point  where  reading  touches  the 
child — the  story.  The  cadence  of  the  basic  rhymes 
which  appeals  to  the  child's  innate  sense  of  rhythm  is 
seized  on  as  a  means  of  teaching  children  a  useful 
stock  of  sight  words  in  rational  and  pleasing  associa- 

69 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

tion.  But  independent  word  recognition  is  steadily 
kept  in  view ;  a  carefully  planned  series  of  phonic  exer- 
cises achieves  this  end.  When  followed  by  an  enthusi- 
astic teacher  the  results  are  gratifying  indeed.  The 
manual  is  a  good  treatise  on  reading,  and  the  primers 
are  well  organized  and  illustrated.  The  great  danger 
of  the  system  is  that,  in  the  hands  of  a  dispirited 
teacher,  it  degenerates  into  a  stupid  sentence  method. 
In  the  final  analysis  the  Aldine  Method  is  a  sentence 
method;  only  the  skilful  handling  of  the  introductory 
stories  by  the  teacher  saves  it  from  the  weaknesses  in- 
herent in  a  pure  sentence  method. 

The  Finger-play  Method.1 — Its  Underlying  Principle. 
— Another  system,  closely  allied  to  the  Aldine  Method, 
is  the  Davis- Julien  Finger  Play  Method.  It,  too,  be- 
gins with  the  hypothesis  that,  to  read  for  thought,  one 
must  begin  with  thought.  The  foundation  of  the 
reading  matter  is  a  series  of  rhymes,  based  on  familiar 
nature  facts,  and  used  in  connection  with  finger  plays. 
But,  unlike  the  McCloskey  Method,  the  purpose  of 
this  system  "is  not  to  gain  memorized  reading,  but  to 
acquire  independence  through  power  in  phonics. "  The 
reading  text  is,  therefore,  only  a  natural  means  of  in- 
troducing phonics. 

Organisation  of  the  Finger  Play  Method. — The 
Finger  Play  Method  has  four  important  components : 
(i)  the  thought  basis,  (2)  sight  reading,  (3)  pho- 
nics, (4)  extensive  correlation. 

1  DAVIS  AND  JULIEN.    Finger  Play  Readers,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
1909. 

70 
\ 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

1.  The  thought  basis:    Unlike  the  Ward  Method, 
no  list  of  unrelated  sight  words  is  used  to  introduce 
the  child  to  sight  reading.    The  charming  story  of  the 
life  and  work  of  the  bee  forms  the  initial  lesson  in 
reading.     The  beehive  is  brought  into  the  room,  the 
bees  themselves  are  the  all-absorbing  topic  of  the  day, 
and  their  very  song  is  sung.    Any  sentence  about  bees 
that  the  children  invent  to  express  their  interest  in  the 
lesson  is  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher,  and  is 
read  by  them  after  her.    At  the  end  of  the  first  lesson, 
the  class  can  read    bee    and    beehive,    distinguishing 
them  by  their  varying  lengths.    The  succeeding  lessons 
begin  with  the  song  of  the  bees,  or  the  game  of  the 
children  in  the  beehive,  as  they  recite  the  first  rhyme, 
"Here  is  the  beehive.     Where  are  the  bees?    Hidden 
away  where  nobody  sees."    The  children,  then  closing 
their  fingers  into  a  fist,  continue:     "Soon  they  come 
creeping  out  of  the  hive,  one,  two,  three,  four,  five"; 
at  each  count  a  finger  is  opened,  until  the  five  bees  fly 
away.    A  dramatization,  in  which  all  the  children  save 
five  form  a  beehive  and  allow  the  five  bees  to  fly  away 
as  they  recite  the  complete  rhyme,  is  one  of  many 
pleasant  devices  of  the  method. 

2.  Sight  reading:     The  sight  reading  follows,  in  the 
main,   the   procedure  noted   in  other  systems.     The 
rhyme  is  mastered  first,  then  phrases,  words,  sounds, 
and  their  reconstruction  into  words,  form  the  order  of 
succession. 

3.  Phonics:  The  Finger  Play  Method,  unlike  other 
methods,  begins  its  phonic  work  at  once.     The  first 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

sight  word,  bee,  is  used  as  a  basis  for  phonic  analysis 
into  b  and  ee,  and  for  their  phonic  synthesis  into  bee* 
The  work  in  phonics  is  well  graded  in  progressive 
repetitions  and  is  designed,  by  the  end  of  the  term,  to 
give  the  child  a  knowledge  of  most  of  the  useful  pho- 
nograms, and  to  develop  a  gratifying  ability  in  phonic 
analyses  and  blends. 

4.  Extensive  correlation:  Another  strong  element 
in  the  organization  of  this  method  is  its  extensive  cor- 
relation. Music  is  made  a  helpful  basis  in  phonic  exer- 
cises; a  living  interest  in  nature  is  developed  through 
its  nature-study  context;  building  the  beehive,  folding 
papers  into  "chicadees,"  etc.,  numerous  drawings,  are 
forms  of  manual  training  that  afford  excellent  seat 
work;  the  games  and  the  dramatizations  are  pleasant 
forms  of  physical  exercise  for  the  children;  the  early 
emphasis  on  writing  is  another  link  in  the  long  chain 
of  correlations. 

Estimate  of  Finger  Play  Method. — Stripped  of  all 
its  devices,  this  method  is  really  an  analytic-phonic 
reading  system.  The  first  concern  of  the  authors 
seems  to  be  to  evolve  a  series  of  well-selected  and 
graded  phonograms;  their  second  concern  is  to  fit  an 
agreeable  subject-matter  to  these  phonic  elements. 
Through  songs,  games,  dramatizations,  manual  work, 
and  nature  appeals,  the  content  is  skillfully  made  to 
cover  the  early  phonic  structure.  Some  teachers  com- 
plain that  in  the  latter  part  of  the  primer  the  round  of 
repetitions  grows  monotonous.  But  these  graded  rep- 
etitions insure  early  independent  reading,  so  that  the 

72 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

children  are  soon  ready  for  supplementary  texts  and 
varied  reading  matter.  The  later  readers  are  excel- 
lent in  content,  organization  and  artistic  design.  The 
illustrations  are  superb. 

The  Horace  Mann  System.1 — Basic  Principle. — The 
latest  method  of  reading  which  is  attracting  attention 
is  the  Horace  Mann  System.  We  must  consider  it 
carefully,  in  order  to  place  it  properly  in  the  list  of 
methods  for  primary  reading.  Its  underlying  princi- 
ple is,  "Let  thought  lead.  .  .  .  Reading,  after  all,  is 
an  affair  of  thought,  imagination,  emotion,  and  ex- 
pression. "  Not  only  are  the  initial  sentences  related 
in  thought,  but  the  successive  lessons  are  so  interre- 
lated in  theme  and  vocabulary  that  they  are  designed 
to  promote  "constructive  thinking." 

Organization  of  the  Horace  Mann  System. — From 
the  very  beginning  the  teacher  is  cautioned  to  see  that 
all  reading  is  properly  motivated  for  the  children,  i.  e., 
that  they  feel  a  personal  hunger  to  read;  that  they 
know  the  words  reasonably  well;  that  the  theme  is 
part  of  their  experiences  and  cravings ;  that  the  prepar- 
ation reveals  only  that  which  will  stir  curiosity,  but 
conceals  enough  to  lead  them  to  "read  to  learn,"  rather 
than  to  "learn  to  read." 

The  reading  text  is  introduced  through  various 
media,  each  of  which  guarantees  an  interesting  thought 
basis.  In  one  situation,  the  medium  may  be  a  Label- 
ing Process.  A  picture  or  an  object  with  its  descrip- 

JHERVEY  AND  Hix.    The  Horace  Mann  Readers,  Longmans,. 
Green,  &  Co.,  1912. 

73 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

tive  words  is  hung  before  the  class.  In  the  ensuing 
language  lesson  the  teacher  leads  the  class  to  associate 
the  symbols  with  their  objects.  In  the  next  lesson  the 
symbols  recall  their  respective  objects.  Story-telling, 
in  which  the  teacher  puts  recurring  sentences  or 
phrases  on  the  board,  is  another  device  for  introduc- 
ing sight  reading.  The  natural  repetition  of  these 
expressions  affords  a  drill  which  enables  children  to 
recognize,  first,  the  sentence  or  phrase,  and  then  the 
component  words.  Reading  by  Position  is  also  used. 
A  known  rhyme  is  read  and  the  words  are  learned  by 
their  position  in  the  memorized  context.  Silent  Read- 
ing is  still  another  form  of  sight  reading.  A  given 
sentence  is  put  on  the  board.  If  it  is  a  command,  the 
teacher  executes  it  and  the  children  infer  what  the 
written  sentence  says.  If  it  is  a  question,  the  teacher 
answers  it,  and  the  children  construct  the  interroga- 
tion. Context  Reading,  in  which  the  children  read  a 
sentence  of  known  words  and  supply  an  omitted 
word,  is  a  favorite  means  of  teaching  new  sight 
words.  Games  and  songs,  in  which  rhymes  or 
stanzas  are  learned,  afford  excellent  means  of  memo- 
rizing texts,  which  are  read,  as  in  the  other  systems, 
at  sight. 

In  every  lesson  there  is,  therefore,  a  thought  basis 
for  sight  reading,  and  every  means  has  been  taken  to 
make  the  reading  expressive  and  the  phrasing  correct 
before  phonic  analysis  receives  attention.  This  method 
then  posits  the  principle  that  to  neglect  phonics  is 
to  fail  to  develop  independent  reading;  to  focalize 

74 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

phonics  is  to  develop  ability  to  recognize  words  but 
not  to  read.  Having  made  reading  an  "affair  of 
thought,"  it  now  concerns  itself  with  organizing,  grad- 
ing, and  vitalizing  phonic  elements.  All  phonograms 
find  their  origin  in  the  reading  text,  and  receive  ample 
drills  through  wise  repetitions  in  succeeding  reading 
matter.  Drills  in  ear  training,  enunciation,  phonic 
analysis,  and  synthesis  are  integral  parts  of  each  of 
the  progressive  series  of  lessons.  However,  this  meth- 
od does  not  place  emphasis  upon  learning  to  recognize 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  sight  words,  but 
rather  on  the  power  to  work  out  new  words  inde- 
pendently. 

Estimate  of  Horace  Mann  System. — This  bold  out- 
line of  the  organization  of  this  reading  method  shows 
that  it  contains  no  new  theory  nor  a  new  suggestion  to 
modern  methodology.  All  that  it  attempts  to  do  has 
been  done  by  reading  systems  in  use  today.  But  its 
eclectic  character,  its  wise  application  of  all  sound 
principles  and  devices  for  teaching  reading,  its  con- 
sistent call  on  the  child's  self -activity,  its  graded  and 
applied  work  in  phonics,  and  its  excellent  manual, 
which  is  a  treatise  on  reading,  will  undoubtedly  lead 
to  its  adoption,  and  enable  it  to  achieve  successful  re- 
sults. 

The  Progressive  Road  to  Reading.1 — Underlying  Prin- 
ciple.— A  system  of  reading  unanimously  praised  by 
those  who  use  it  is  the  "Progressive  Road  to  Reading." 

iShimer,  Ettinger  and  Burchill:  "The  Progressive  Road  to 
Reading,"  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

75 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

Like  the  "Natural  Method"  (Culture  Primers),1  it  is 
an  extended  and  systematic  application  of  the  princi- 
ples and  organization  as  worked  out  in  the  story 
method  of  Miss  Margaret  McCloskey. 

Organisation  of  the  "Progressive  Road  to  Read- 
ing."— i.  The  teaching  of  the  story:  The  teaching 
of  the  basic  story  comes  first.  The  cumulative  story 
of  the  "Hen  and  the  Bag  of  Flour"  is  told  by 
the  teacher,  then  made  the  subject  of  conversa- 
tion lessons,  and  finally  reproduced  by  the  children, 
with  the  aid  of  appropriate  dramatizations.  The 
blackboard  wgrk  is  now  introduced.  The  first  sen- 
tence, printed  on  the  board  or  on  a  chart,  is  read,  as 
a  sentence,  then  verbal  relations  are  recognized.  The 
children  learn  independent  word  recognition  (i)  by 
the  position  of  the  word  in  a  known  sentence,  (2)  by 
comparison  with  the  same  word  in  the  known  sen- 
tence, and  (3)  by  reeding  new  sentences  from  old 
words.  To  illustrate:  The  known  sentence  is,  "A 
hen  had  a  bag  of  Hour"  The  children  learn  the  word 
"hen"  by  its  position  in  the  sentence ;  hen  is  the  second 
word.  At  a  later  stage  in  the  drill  the  teacher  has  the 
sentence  on  one  board  and  the  word  hen  on  another. 
The  children  look  at  the  isolated  word  hen,  then  at 
the  sentence,  and  see  that  the  lone  word  hen  looks  like 
the  second  word  in  the  sentence.  When  mastery  of 
all  the  words  in  the  sentence  is  thus  attained,  new  sen- 
tences are  constructed  by  the  teacher  and  the  children 

*MRS.  ELLEN  KENYON-WARNER.     The  Culture  Primers  (Nat- 
ural Method),  C  R  Merrill  Co. 

76 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

are  called  upon  to  read  these.  "She  tried  to  carry  it 
home  herself  becomes  "She  herself  tried  to  carry  it 
home" ;  this  in  turn  is  changed  to  "The  hen  tried  to 
carry  the  bag  of  Hour  home  herself."  So,  too,  the 
sentence,  "But  the  hen  said  'no,'"  becomes  succes- 
sively, "  'No?  said  the  hen,"  "The  hen  herself  said, 
'No;  "  "Said  the  hen,  'No/  "  "The  hen  said,  'No.' " 
Rote  work  is  thus  guarded  against  very  successfully. 
Each  child  whispers  the  sentence  to  the  teacher,  and 
is  placed  in  one  of  three  sections,  depending  upon 
his  ability. 

2.  Phonics:    The  second  part  of  the  method  deals 
with  the  problem  of  phonics.     The  procedure  is  the 
same  as  in  the  McCloskey  Method.    The  sight  words 
afford  the  basis  for  phonic  exercises.     These  words 
are  analyzed;  the  component  phonograms  are  studied 
and  then  blended.    Thus,  hen  gives  "en";  the  "p"  the 
"t"  the  "d"  the  "m"  are  brought  from  other  words, 
and  the  child  learns  to  read  pen,  ten,  den,  men.  In  this 
way  the  ear  is  trained,  the  ability  to  read  new  words 
is  given,  and  the  children  are  prepared  for  spelling. 

3.  The  written  language:     The  third  part  of  the 
method,  like  the  McCloskey  Method,  deals  with  "writ- 
ten language."     Each  grade  teaches  the  writing  of 
words  and  of  sentences.    A  word  like  "it"  is  put  on 
the  board,  explained,  written  again  and  again,  erased, 
and  then  the  children  imitate  it.    Then  on,  no,  me,  so, 
will,  etc.,  are  added.     New  words  are  built  on  these; 
"will"  gives  sill,  till,  bill,  kill,  etc.     When  enough 
words  are  mastered,  they  are  joined  into  short  sen- 

77 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

tences.  These  are  put  on  the  board,  the  children  study 
them,  and,  after  they  are  erased,  they  imitate  them. 
If  the  children  fail,  the  sentence  is  again  put  on  the 
board,  again  visualized,  and  again  erased.  Pupils  once 
more  attempt  a  complete  reproduction.  The  results 
'of  this  written  work  were  noted  and  discussed  in  a 
previous  connection.1 

Estimate  of  the  "Progressive  Road"  Method. — The 
method  is  sound  theoretically,  thoroughly  modern  in 
spirit,  and  well  graded  in  organization.  Although  in 
the  final  analysis  it  is  very  similar  to  the  Newark  or 
McCloskey  method,  it  is  more  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived by  teachers  because  it  has  a  better  selection  of 
stories,  is  more  systematic,  continues  its  plan  for 
longer  than  the  first  year,  and  offers  a  carefully  elabo- 
rated manual,  which  readily  guides  the  teacher  inex- 
perienced in  teaching  primary  reading. 

How  to  Judge  Any  System  of  Reading. — In  this  hasty 
survey  of  the  various  systems  of  primary  reading  no 
attempt  was  made  to  study  each  in  detail.  The  teacher 
who  is  teaching  by  any  one  of  these  methods  will  find 
every  step  well  developed,  illustrated,  graded,  and  ex- 
plained in  its  respective  manual.  These  manuals  are 
often  excellent  treatises  on  the  subject  of  primary 
reading.  The  aim  of  this  and  the  preceding  chapter 
was  merely  to  give  the  point  of  view,  the  classifica- 
tion, and  the  final  justification  of  each  method.  No 
one  method  is  recommended,  for  the  choice  of  a  sys- 
tem of  reading  must  be  made  by  the  teachers  in  con- 

1  See  page  55. 

78 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

ference  with  their  principal.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  suggest  an  outline  of  study  that  teachers 
should  follow  who  are  sincerely  searching  for  a  read- 
ing system  that  will  most  efficiently  meet  their  prob- 
lem and  the  children's  needs.  The  following  is  sug- 
gested : 

In  studying  a  method  of  primary  reading,  we  ask: 

1.  What  is  its  basic  theory,  or  underlying  principle? 

2.  How  should  it  be  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  the  method? 

a.  What    is    its    procedure    in    reading    for 

thought?  In  developing  independent 
reading  through  power  in  phonics  ?  Are 
these  two  aims  rationally  balanced  ? 

b.  What  device  does  it  use,  not  found  in  other 

systems  ? 
c  What  equipment  does  it  necessitate — charts, 

cards,  pictures,  etc.? 
d.  Does  it  provide  a  manual  for  the  teacher? 

4.  Primers  and  Readers? 

a.  Content  Aspect:    Has  content  any  relation 

to  child's  life? 

b.  Formal  Aspect :    Are  they  graded,  progres- 

sive, within  the  comprehension  of  the 
children?  Is  phonics  well  treated  and 
duly  emphasized? 

c.  Pedagogical  Aspect :    Well  illustrated  ?    De- 

signed to  arouse  an  interest  in  good 
reading  ? 

79 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

d.  Hygienic  Aspect:     Do  they  meet  hygienic 

requirements  ? 

e.  Later  Readers  and  Supplementary  Readers: 

Are  they  literary  in  aim  and  content? 
Progressive  and  graded?  Do  they  in- 
spire love  for  reading? 

5.  Is  the  method  as  elaborated  consistent  with  its 

theory?    Does  it  accomplish  its  object? 

6.  How  does  it  compare  with  others  ? 

a.  In  speedy  results  in  mechanics  of  reading? 

b.  In  arousing  activity  of  children  and  their 

love  for  reading? 

c.  In  arousing  interest  in  teachers,  etc.  ? 

d.  In  developing  independent  reading  through 

power  of  phonics? 

e.  In  developing  habits  of  thought  acquisition 

in  reading? 

7.  Criticism? 

a.  Points  in  its  favor? 

b.  Its  limitations? 

c.  Is  the  method  in  harmony  with  the  best  the- 

ories of  the  psychology,  pedagogy,  and 
hygiene  of  reading? 

Conclusion. — The  skeptic  asks,  "Why  all  these  peda- 
gogical inventions;  did  not  the  old  alphabetic  method 
teach  humanity  how  to  read  ?"  The  alphabetic  method 
did  teach  us  how  to  read,  but  it  cheated  the  child  of 
the  joy  of  the  story  for  many  years,  and,  in  the  end, 
often  made  him  a  lip  reader,  or  a  ponderous  word 

80 


MODERN   METHODS   OF   PRIMARY  READING 

reader.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  we  seek  a  method 
which  makes  reading  a  thought  process,  and  makes 
the  initial  lesson  a  delight  to  the  story-loving  child.1 

SUGGESTED  READING 

BAYLES,  MARTHA  B.     McCloskey  Method  of  Teaching 

Reading.     School  Work,  vi,  No.  3. 
GRIFFIN,  SUSIE  A.    Ward  Method  of  Teaching  Reading. 

School  Work,  vii,  No.  I. 
HAGAR,  CAROLINE.     The  Aldine  Method  of  Teaching 

Reading.     School  Work,  vii,  No.  3. 
HUEY,  E.  B.     Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading, 

chaps.  XIV,  XVII,  XVIII. 
HUGHES,  JAMES  L.    Teaching  to  Read.    A.  S.  Barnes 

&Co. 
KARR,  GRANT.    Summers  Method  of  Teaching  Reading. 

School  Work,  viii.  No.  2. 
KENYON-WARNER,  E.  E.     Natural  Method  in  Reading. 

School  Work,  vii,  No.  4. 
LAING,    MARY  E.    Reading,   a    Manual   for   Teachers, 

chap.  IX. 
McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.    Special  Method  in  Reading  for 

the  Grades.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

MOUNT,  CHRISTIANA.    New  Education  Method  of  Read- 
ing.    School  Work,  viii,  No.  I. 

1  In  the  Appendix  (pages  206-236)  will  be  found  criticisms 
of  the  following  systems  of  method  readers :  the  Edson-Laing 
Readers;  the  Merrill  Readers;  the  Elson-Runkel  Method; 
the  Beacon  Readers ;  the  Riverside  Readers ;  the  See  and  Say 
Series;  the  Story  Hour  Readers;  the  Natural  Method 
Readers. 

81 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  SUBJECT-MATTER   OF   PRIMARY  READING 
A.     THE    PRIMES 

Development  of  the  Primer. — A  system  of  reading, 
planned  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  child,  embody- 
ing all  the  tendencies  indicated  by  sound  psychology, 
often  fails  because  of  the  limitations  of  its  reading 
matter.  Primers  have  too  often  been  written  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  method,  to  supply  words  for  the  pho- 
nic exercises,  to  sound  an  ethical  platitude,  or  to  state 
a  patriotic  sentiment.  They  are  seldom  written  from  a 
sympathetic  study  of  the  life,  the  interests  and  the  ex- 
periences of  the  children  whom  they  are  to  inspire.  It 
is  interesting  to  trace  the  growth  of  primers  from  the 
early  New  England  forms,  in  which  the  governing 
object  was  to  give  the  child  religious  and  moral  in- 
struction or  elaborations  of  the  copybook  maxims,  to 
the  best  of  our  day,  which  seek  to  present  reading 
matter  that  is  simple  in  thought  and  form,  intimate 
in  its  relation  to  child  life  and  child  cravings,  and 
valuable  from  the  point  of  view  of  literature  itself. 

Characteristics  of  a  Good  Primer. — A  model  primer 
meets  certain  primary  demands  in  content  and  in  me- 
chanical organization.  Let  us  turn  to  each. 

82 


THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  PRIMARY   READING 

i.  Content  of  the  Primer. — The  primary  requisite 
of  the  content  of  a  primer  'or  an  early  reader  is  that 
it  should  be  good  literature.  Children  should  be  given 
reading  matter  that  is  worth  while,  for  its  own  sake. 
An  examination  of  the  flat,  insipid,  uninspiring  sub- 
ject-matter of  the  average  primer  shows  at  once  how 
many  reading  systems  are  hopeless  from  the  very  be- 
ginning. Although  the  content  must  be  within  the 
child's  sphere  of  comprehension  and  interests,  it  should 
be  decidedly  above  his  level  of  style,  expression,  and 
language  possessions. 

A  second  characteristic  of  proper  reading  content  is 
that  it  should  be  varied.  When  we  scan  the  wide  field 
of  possibilities  we  readily  realize  how  easily  this  sec- 
ond requisite  can  be  incorporated.  In  brief,  what  can 
be  included  in  this  early  reading  matter?  We  may 
include  the  following : 

a.  The  nursery  rhymes  that  have  stood  the  test  of 
time  make  delightful  content;  they  are  loved  by  the 
children,  they  develop  a  language  cadence  and  a  sense 
of  rhythm;  they  are  adaptable  for  play  and  drama- 
tization. 

b.  Personal  stories  of  class  and  school  life  and  ex- 
perience should  come  next  as  part  of  the  reading  mat- 
ter.    Any  event  in  the  day's  experience  about  which 
the  children  are  enthusiastic  should  become  the  basis 
of  that  day's  reading  matter.    After  discussion  by  the 
children,  the  teacher  puts  the  reading  lesson  on  the 
board,  and  frames  it  in  terms  of  words,  expressions 
and  phonetic  elements  that  are  known.    The  most  de- 

83 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

lightful  reading  lessons  are  not  printed  in  books. 
They  are  outgrowths  of  class  life  and  find  their  au- 
thorship in  the  teacher. 

c.  Fairy  tales  offer  the  next  contribution  to  content. 
If  there  were  no  other  justification  for  their  introduc- 
tion it  would  suffice  to  say  that  children  love  them. 
They  are  most  germane  to  the  child's  interests.    They 
are  a  source  of  infinite  joy,  because  they  color  with 
poetic  charm  the  common  human  virtues;  "they  pre- 
sent truth  through  the  guise  of  images."    The  stories 
of  "The  Ugly  Duckling,"  or  of  "Cinderella,"  are  illus- 
trations of  the  ingenious  teaching  and  the  poetic  con- 
ception of  everyday  faults  and  virtues.    These  stories 
feed  a  glowing  imagination  and  answer  the  cultural 
needs  of  later  life,  for  they  recur  in  music,  in  painting, 
in  sculpture,  and  in  adult  literature. 

d.  Animal  and  nature  stories  receive  a  hearty  re- 
sponse from  the  children.     The  child  is  interested  in 
living  nature  next  to  real  humanity.     These  stories 
must  be  literature  first  and  science  second.    The  ani- 
mal or  the  plant  must  be  humanized,  it  must  be  imbued 
with  the  same  yearnings,  the  same  loves  and  hates  and 
temptations  as  the  child  himself  feels,  if  it  is  to  become 
part  of  an  agreeable  reading  content. 

e.  Folk  tales  and  fables  come  next  in  the  list  of 
varied  elements  in  the  reading  content.    They  contain 
in  simple  form  a  liberal  stock  of  the  world's  wisdom, 
given  not  in  the  form  of  moral  talks,  but  through  real 
actors,  usually  through  an  animal  as  the  agent.     The 
ethical  lessons  are  usually  effective,  because  the  moral 

84 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER   OF   PRIMARY   READING 

situations  picture  concretely  and  with  a  tinge  of 
humor,  the  inevitable  results  of  greed,  selfishness, 
kindness,  cruelty,  or  truthfulness.  The  moral  conclu- 
sions are  of  a  worldly  sort,  exceedingly  practical  and 
far  from  the  lofty  and  impossible  levels  of  the  aver- 
age ethics  lessons.  This  accounts  for  the  general  dis- 
repute into  which  the  fable  has  fallen.  Dr.  Adler 
thinks  they  are  of  dubious  merit  and  fraught  with 
danger,  for  they  inspire  in  the  child  respect  for  cun- 
ning and  craftiness.  But  every  situation  that  is  prob- 
lematical in  its  nature  is  liable  to  misinterpretation  by 
the  immature  child  unless  the  teacher,  by  skilful  ques- 
tions or  suggestions,  undermines  the  wrong  attitude. 

f.  Cumulative  tales,  with  the  rhythmic  round  of 
repetitions  of  the  type  of  "A  Kid,"  "The  House  That 
Jack  Built,"  have  a  legitimate  place  in  the  primer.  The 
constant  repetitions  afford  a  means  of  ready  and  nat- 
ural retention  with  minimum  effort,  for  the  repetitions 
are  not  indulged  in  for  the  sake  of  reiteration,  but  are 
part  of  the  story  itself;  their  cadence  and  rhythmic 
appeal  are  added  factors  in  producing  more  permanent 
impressions.    The  humorous  and  the  human  elements 
in  these  stories  guarantee  an  enthusiastic  reception  by 
the  children. 

g.  The  humorous  story  is  another  element  in  early 
reading  content  that  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  The 
humor  of  these  stories  is  a  tonic  to  the  nerves,  for  it 
has  a  relaxing  property.    "The  delicious  shock  of  sur- 
prise at  every  ' funny  spot'  is  a  kind  of  electric  treat- 
ment to  the  nerves."    The  list  for  reading  cannot  be 

85 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

complete  unless  we  include  the  dramatic  stories  that 
make  the  nerves  tense  and  suspend  the  breath,  the 
Bible  stories,  with  their  delightful  narratives  free 
from  moralizations,  myths,  and  the  host  of  stories, 
legends,  traditions,  that  have  been  a  joy  and  an  in- 
spiration to  successive  generations  of  youth  with  vo- 
racious literary  cravings. 

A  third  requisite  of  the  content  of  primers  is  that 
early  reading  must  be  well  illustrated.  The  picture,  in 
a  good  reading  system,  is  often  an  integral  part  of 
the  reading  method.  It  must,  therefore,  be  artistic  in 
drawing,  form  and  color,  even  when  judged  by  adult 
standards.  We  must  discard  the  cheap  cuts  that  are 
scattered  haphazard  throughout  the  books  to  relieve 
the  monotony  of  print  and  swell  the  number  of  pages. 
The  illustrations  must  be  full  of  action,  must  arouse 
constructive  fancy  and  prompt  rich  and  productive 
imagery  in  the  minds  of  the  children. 

But  the  developing  mind  of  the  prepubescent  or  the 
pubescent  in  the  grammar  grades  makes  unnecessary 
elaborate  and  numerous  illustrations.  Used  with  in- 
judicious frequency,  these  graphic  appeals  are  positive 
dangers.  They  weaken  imagination  by  giving  it  un- 
due aid;  they  prevent  the  artist  in  the  child's  mind 
from  painting  his  own  picture  by  restricting  him  to 
what  the  eye  sees;  "they  appeal  to  the  senses,  where 
mind  and  heart  should  be  touched." 

The  fourth  requisite  of  the  content  of  the  primer 
demands  that  the  theme  of  the  reading  matter  be  ad- 
justed  to  the  experience  of  the  child.  A  general  con- 

86 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER  OF   PRIMARY  READING 

tent  will  not  suit  all  children ;  there  must  be  a  wise  and 
discriminating  organization  so  that  content  most  nat- 
ural to  city  children  will  not  be  imposed  on  country 
children,  and  vice  versa.  Too  often  the  content  un- 
duly transcends  the  circumference  of  the  child's  exper- 
ience. The  best  of  the  most  extensively  used  primers 
are  found  to  contain  stories  and  reading  matter  deal- 
ing with  the  cultivation  of  soil,  the  products  of  garden 
and  orchard,  the  habits  of  common  animals,  etc., 
concepts  that  are  native  to  children  in  rural  sections, 
but  foreign  to  their  city  cousins.  An  examination  into 
the  content  of  the  minds  of  children  brought  these 
remarkable  figures :  54  per  cent,  of  the  children  in  a 
school  did  not  know  a  sheep;  18  per  cent,  a  cow;  52 
per  cent.,  a  bee;  19  per  cent.,  a  hen;  50  per  cent,  a 
squirrel ;  70  per  cent.,  a  snail.  Nevertheless,  the  read- 
ing content  of  their  primers  assumed  a  first-hand 
knowledge  of  these  nature  facts.  While  the  reading 
matter  should  widen  the  child's  horizon,  it  is  evident 
that  the  pupil  must  be  taken  out  of  his  sphere  of  ex- 
perience gradually  and  with  due  preparation. 

2.  Mechanics  of  the  Primer. — But  there  is  a  second 
side  to  the  organization  of  the  primer.  Not  only  must 
the  content  be  literary,  but  it  must  be  designed  to  de- 
velop ability  to  extract  thought  when  new  words  or 
new  combinations  of  phonic  elements  occur.  The 
primer  must  meet  these  mechanical  requisites  if  it  is 
to  develop  independent  reading.  To  these  we  must 
now  turn. 

First,  there  must  be  repetition  to  insure  mastery  of 

87 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

form.  The  reading  matter  must  be  so  framed  that  the 
same  words  occur  again  and  again,  and  new  words  are 
introduced  that  are  built  on  the  same  basal  phono- 
gram. But  at  no  time  must  repetition  be  secured  at 
the  price  of  literary  content.  Such  text  as  "What  ails 
the  lock?  Why  do  you  fail  to  see  the  tails  of  the 
flock  ?"  shows  an  attempt  to  reduce  the  phonic  elements 
ail  and  ock  to  habit,  but  the  exercise  is  only  a  phonic 
drill,  and  cannot  attain  the  dignity  of  a  reading  lesson. 
A  cumulative  tale  in  the  McCloskey  Primer,  or  in  the 
"Progressive  Road  to  Reading/'  is  an  illustration  of 
content  designed  to  give  necessary  repetitions  without 
sacrificing  form  to  thought. 

Secondly,  phonic  difficulties  must  be  well  graded. 
Each  new  lesson  and  each  succeeding  story  must  not 
only  introduce  a  new  set  of  words  having  the  same 
family  trait,  but  must  also  repeat  preceding  words  and 
utilize  old  phonograms  until  their  recognition  is  in- 
stantaneous. The  forms  in  reading  must  be  reduced 
to  habit;  habit  knows  only  one  price,  repetition. 

Finally,  the  primer  must  meet  the  hygienic  requi- 
sites that  were  outlined  in  a  previous  discussion.  The 
illustrations  must  be  so  placed  that  they  allow  for  a 
fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  length  of  lines;  the 
lines  must  not  be  long;  the  type  must  be  of  standard 
size,  and  the  paper  must  be  of  a  white  or  yellowish 
tint,  and  completely  free  of  gloss. 

Conclusion. — The  primary  teacher  reviewing  this 
long  list  of  requisites  may  feel  discouraged  when  she 
seeks  them  in  the  books  given  to  her  class.  The  limi- 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER   OF   PRIMARY   READING 

tations  in  the  content  can  be  counteracted,  however, 
for  blackboard  and  charts  can  be  used  frequently  to 
give  better  subject-matter.  But,  although  nothing  can 
be  done  if  the  book  is  wrong  in  its  mechanical  or- 
ganization, it  is,  nevertheless,  worth  knowing  the  limi- 
tations under  which  we  labor,  for  only  then  are  we 
ready  to  demand  intelligent  reform. 

1.     HEADING    TO    PUPILS 

Value  of  Systematic  Reading  to  Pupils. — An  excellent 
method  of  developing  a  literary  sense  in  children  is 
to  bring  them  into  contact  with  as  much  appropriate 
literature  as  possible  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
school  course.  The  formal  reading  periods  are  usually 
governed  by  specific  difficulties  of  technical  English, 
and  do  not  allow  the  teacher  to  give  the  class  more 
than  a  glimpse  of  the  vast  literary  treasures  in  store 
for  them.  Only  by  systematic  reading  to  pupils  can 
we  give  them  that  acquaintanceship  with  literature  that 
develops  a  sense  of  appreciation  for  literary  master- 
pieces. Such  an  interest  in  literature  gives  excellent 
occupation  for  leisure  hours,  teaches  a  new  means  of 
recreation,  cultivates  imagination,  refines  emotions, 
and  creates  ideals  of  right  living.  Reading  to  chil- 
dren gives  them  not  only  this  wider  knowledge  of  liter- 
ature, but  presents  to  them  models  of  correct  speech. 
It  is  evident,  then,  that  reading  to  children  must  not 
degenerate  into  a  mere  pastime,  nor  be  indulged  in 
spasmodically  at  the  passing  whim  of  the  teacher,  or 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

as  a  means  of  relieving  the  mental  ennui  of  the  chil- 
dren. Part  of  the  general  reading  course  must  assign 
systematic,  regular  and  graded  material  to  be  read  by 
the  teachers  to  pupils  in  every  class. 

Suggestion  to  Teachers  in  Beading  to  Children — i. 
These  values  of  reading  to  children  cannot  be  realized 
unless  the  teacher  sets  up  a  definite  aim  in  each  selec- 
tion and  then  tries  to  realize  it.  Thus,  one  selection  is 
read  because  its  dialogue  affords  the  teacher  an  oppor- 
tunity of  offering  the  class  a  good  model  of  oral  read- 
ing, another,  because  of  the  ethical  principle  which  is 
so  vividly  taught,  or  another,  because  it  is  a  good 
means  of  introducing  children  to  a  type  of  story,  or 
to  the  works  of  a  particular  writer.  The  aim  gives 
method  and  meaning  to  each  period. 

2.  In  reading  to  children,  teachers  must  make  a 
practice  of  stopping  at  logical  pauses  and  questioning 
the  class  on  the  content.    If  the  pupils  remember  the 
phraseology  of  the  text,  they  should  be  allowed  to  use 
it  in  their  answers.    In  addition  to  making  for  greater 
familiarity  with  the  material  presented,  this  question- 
ing enriches  the  children's  vocabularies. 

3.  As  far  as  possible,  the  child  should  be  more  than 
a  passive  listener  throughout  the  reading.    Dramatiza- 
tions, pictorial  representations,  and  oral  discussions, 
are  forms  of  expression  that  should  be  required  of 
children  to  make  them  active  agents  in  the  lesson. 

4.  In  all  questioning  the  teacher  must  not  allow  the 
period  to  degenerate  into  an  informal  one  designed  to 
elaborate  the  work  of  geography,  history,  or  nature 

90 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER  OF   PRIMARY   READING 

study.     The  distinctive  characteristic  of  this  reading 
must  be  its  literary  spirit. 

5.  In  all  reading  great  care  should  be  given  to  clear- 
ness of  articulation  and  enunciation.     Sounds  incor- 
rectly uttered  by  the  children  should  be  exaggerated 
in  correctness  by  the  teacher  so  that  each  child's  ear 
reverberates  with  the  correct  auditory  impression. 

6.  In  reading  to  the  class  the  teacher's  eyes  must 
not  be  riveted  on  the  book.     There  must  be  enough 
familiarity  with  the  matter  read  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  look  from  the  page  to  the  class.    The  changes  in 
facial  expression  and  the  appeal  of  the  eyes  enable  the 
story  to  "come  across"  and  make  for  a  sympathetic 
response  from  the  children. 

7.  At  times  the  teacher  may  be  relieved  from  con- 
tinued oral  reading  by  a  pupil,  but  in  all  such  cases 
only  the  best  readers  should  be  called. 

Suggestions  for  Supervising  "Reading  to  Children." 
— If  interest  is  to  be  maintained,  and  the  children  are 
to  derive  the  fund  of  values  that  were  ascribed  to 
"reading  to  children,"  supervisors  must  see  that  these 
readings  are  systematic,  graded  and  varied  through- 
jout  the  course.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see  daily  sched- 
ules of  primary  classes  with  no  provision  for  reading 
to  children.  These  periods  must  be  as  definitely  indi- 
cated as  others.  Supervisors  allow  each  teacher  to 
read  what  seems  appropriate  to  her;  the  inevitable 
result  is  lack  of  gradation  and  duplications  in  succes- 
sive grades.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  supervisor  to  collect 
as  many  sources  of  reading  material  as  possible;  appli- 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

cation  to  the  nearest  library  authorities  will  usually 
bring  a  host  of  titles  of  appropriate  readings.  Each 
teacher  is  then  invited  to  select  from  these  recom- 
mendations what  she  considers  best  suited  to  her 
grade;  this  becomes  the  assignment  for  her  class  for 
the  school  term.  At  the  end  of  the  term  each  teacher 
criticizes  the  assignments,  indicating  those  that  were 
found  uninteresting,  or  too  difficult,  or  too  simple,  or 
better  suited  for  another  grade.  The  supervisor  must 
correct  the  assignments  in  the  light  of  the  experience 
of  the  teachers  and  her  personal  judgment.  The  sec- 
ond term  finds  a  more  favorable  allotment  of  material 
in  each  grade.  In  this  manner  the  "reading  to  chil- 
dren" becomes  graded,  systematic,  and  varied,  and 
thus  contributes  liberally  to  each  child's  literary  stock. 

0.     TELLIKS    iTOWEI    TO    CHILDREN 

The  Dignity  of  Story-telling.  — The  poet  who  laments 
"The  days  of  minstrelsy  are  gone"  expresses  for  youth 
its  deep  sense  of  loss.  Every  child  is  a  romanticist, 
in  whose  life  the  minstrel  occupies  an  exalted  place, 
satisfying  a  deep-seated  love  for  story,  which  is  part 
of  childhood  itself.  Story-telling  has,  therefore,  a 
dignity  and  an  importance  all  its  own.  It  is  an  art 
that  few  teachers  possess  and  many  must .  cultivate. 
The  art  of  story-telling  must  be  emphasized  in  the 
classroom  today,  because  there  is  vital  need  of  giving 
our  children  part  of  their  heritage  of  literary  lore 
long  before  they  are  introduced  to  the  symbols  of  read- 

92 


THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

ing.  The  more  the  love  of  story  is  strengthened,  the 
more  eager  does  the  child  become  to  satisfy  it 
Hence,  when  the  child  is  old  enough  to  learn  to  read, 
he  finds  urgent  motive  for  mastering  symbols  and 
phonic  elements,  for  these  he  regards  as  the  path  to 
new  joys — new  stories.  Secondly,  the  story  is  a  vital 
part  of  many  methods  of  teaching  reading  to  begin- 
ners. Unless  the  story  is  told  well  in  a  method  like 
the  McCloskey,  or  the  Progressive  Road,  or  the  Al- 
dine,  the  spirit  of  intense  pleasure  and  anticipation  is 
lost,  and  the  work  becomes  the  same  arduous  task  as 
in  the  other  methods. 

Purposes  of  Story-telling. — But  story-telling,  like  any 
part  of  classroom  work,  has  its  definite  purposes. 
What  ends  must  we  have  in  view  in  telling  the  chil- 
dren a  series  of  selected  stories? 

1.  Our  first  aim  and  the  object  that  should  be  part 
of  every  story  period  is  to  give  the  child  the  joy  to  be 
found  in  our  literary  possessions.    A  story,  like  any 
other  literary  form,  is  basically  a  work  of  art;  the 
justification  for  the  art  element  in  the  curriculum  is 
the  justification  of  the  story.     Pleasure  is  hence  its 
keynote.     The  story  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
game  of  life,  its  function  being  to  add  the  spirit  of 
excitement,  beauty,  and  emotional  strain,  to  life's  rou- 
tine.   Pleasure,  not  instruction,  is  the  message  of  the 
story.     "The  story  must  enlarge  and  enrich  the  spir- 
itual possessions  of  the  child." 

2.  A  second  aim  of  the  story  may  be  the  informa- 
tional end.    But  this  must  be  incidental  and  thor- 

93  » 


TEACHING   CHILDREN  TO   READ 

oughly  subordinated  to  the  former.  It  must  be  both 
secondary  and  implied.  One  learns  history,  sociology, 
psychology,  etc.,  from  the  drama  and  the  novel,  but 
this  aspect  in  these  literary  forms  is  neither  vital  nor 
basic. 

3.  The  story  may  well  be  used  as  a  means  of  giving 
relief  from  classroom  intensity.    At  the  end  of  a  regu- 
lar physical  training  lesson,  with  its  demand  for  uni- 
formity, close  attention,  keen  concentration,  and  readi- 
ness for  instantaneous  response  the  child  may  be  just 
as  fatigued  mentally  as  before  the  lesson.    The  story 
brings   complete   relief   and   it   relaxes  the   strained 
nerves.    This  complete  relief  serves  to  intensify  con- 
centration when  work  is  resumed. 

4.  A  story  is  often  the  best  medium  of  establishing 
a  bond  of  sympathy  between  children  and  teacher.    It 
is  an  effective  instrument  for  creating  the  necessary 
"rapport";  it  is  an  "open  sesame"  to  the  heart  of 
children.     Many  a  sad  substitute  teacher  has  found 
the  story  the  best  means  of  introducing  herself  to 
the  class  and  seizing  hold  of  the  situation. 

5.  The  story  is  an  excellent  medium  by  means  of 
which  the  power  of  sustained  attention  can  be  devel- 
oped in  the  children.     Their  fleeting  interests,  their 
evanescent  joys,  must  become  long-lived;  these  shift- 
ing mental  activities  must  be  sustained  until  they  can 
carry  the  child  to  a  desired  end.    What  better  means 
to  introduce  sustained  attention  in  the  child's  mental 
life  than  the  story? 

6.  As  a  means  of  developing  the  expressional  pow* 

94 


THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  PRIMARY  READING 

ers  of  the  children,  the  story  has  no  equal.  The 
teacher  of  composition  in  the  primary  grades  finds 
that  the  children's  natural  timidity  and  backwardness, 
their  self -consciousness,  form  the  first  serious  diffi- 
culty. The  story  enlists  their  interests,  they  become 
absorbed  in  it,  and,  for  the  time  being,  forget  them- 
selves. Spontaneous  expression  is  now  made  possible. 
What  forms  of  expression  shall  we  demand?  In  the 
main  any  one  of  the  following  three  ways  will  suffice : 
Mere  retelling  in  the  child's  own  words,  even  with  a 
touch  of  originality  as  to  details  and  sequence,  is  one 
way.  Pictorial  illustration  is  a  second  mode  of  ex- 
pression. Where  drawing  in  the  early  classes  is  taught 
as  a  form  of  composition,  a  medium  for  the  expres- 
sion of  one's  thoughts  in  graphic  rather  than  verbal 
form,  the  pictures,  characters,  or  situations  of  the  story 
can  be  drawn  by  the  children.  Dramatization  forms 
the  next  important  means  of  expression.  But,  in  car- 
rying it  out,  we  must  remember  that  all  children  must 
participate  in  classroom  dramatizations.  A  star  per- 
formance has  no  place  in  the  class.  Then,  too,  the 
timid  child  must  not  be  forced;  he  may  be  invited, 
coaxed  and  encouraged.  Failure  in  a  forced  attempt 
may  mean  permanent  discouragement. 

7.  The  final  purpose  of  the  story  may  be  to  arouse 
moral  judgments.  We  must  not  force  a  moral  if  the 
story  does  not  yield  one  spontaneously,  nor  is  it  neces- 
sary that  every  story  should  be  freighted  with  a  moral. 

Selection  of  Stories  to  Tell. — Before  telling  the  story 
one  naturally  submits  it,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 

95 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

to  the  standards:  "Is  it  appropriate?  Is  it  well  ar- 
ranged ?"  But  we  must  be  sure  that  we  answer  these 
questions  from  the  children's  viewpoint,  rather  than 
from  our  adult  judgment.  What  do  they  seem  to  pre- 
fer in  stories?  A  similar  series  of  varied  stories  was 
read  to  different  groups  of  children.  At  the  end  of 
the  term,  a  vote  was  taken,  and  it  was  found  by  Miss 
Bryant  that  "The  Three  Bears,"  "The  Little  Pigs," 
"The  Woman  and  the  Pig"  were  voted  the  most  popu- 
lar. From  their  selections  and  from  their  eliminations 
we  can  readily  outline  a  series  of  merits  that  children 
demand  in  stones.  Three  characteristics  of  the  stories 
chosen  by  the  children  are:  (i)  The  story  must 
abound  in  action.  "Something  happens  all  the  time. 
Each  step  is  an  event."  There  are  no  descriptions,  no 
gaps,  no  moralizing,  nothing  to  impede  the  movement 
of  the  story.  (2)  The  pictures  must  be  about  things 
well  known  to  the  children.  In  the  "Three  Bears" 
we  have  the  animals,  a  spoon,  a  house,  a  chair,  a  bed, 
etc.  The  story  so  orders  these  that  an  element  of  mys- 
tery tinges  all  the  incidents  and  transports  the  children 
into  Bearland.  (3)  The  stories  must  be  cumulative, 
repetitive.  Each  story  is  built  up  by  a  spiral  of  repe- 
tition, each  circle  repeats  the  previous  incident  and 
adds  a  new  touch.  This  type  of  story  appeals  to  the 
child,  because  it  gives  increased  familiarity  with  each 
phase  of  the  story.  Just  as  we  experience  a  feeling  of 
joy  in  recognizing  a  quotation,  or  a  motif  in  music, 
so,  too,  the  child  is  delighted  to  recognize  and  feel  each 
repetition.  There  is  a  joy  in  keeping  the  sequence 

96 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER  OF   PRIMARY   READING 

accurate.     This  can  be  done  with  no  effort  in  the 
cumulative  tale,  because  of  the  repetitions. 

How  to  Tell  a  Story. — The  successful  story-teller  fol- 
lows, unconsciously,  perhaps,  a  few  important  princi- 
ples. What  shall  the  inexperienced  narrator  remem- 
ber to  guide  him  ? 

1.  Know  the  Message  of  the  Story. — Since  a  story 
is  a  work  of  art,  it  has  a  message.     We  must  make 
sure  that  we  have  found  it  before  we  attempt  to  give 
it  to  others.     The  message  varies  with  the  story.     It 
may  be  one  of  humor,  of  pathos,  of  sincerity,  of  mor- 
ality,   or   of   nonsense.      We    must   find    the   basic 
appeal  of  the  story  and  then  let  it  control  the  whole 
period. 

2.  Feel  the  Basic  Emotion. — The  message  of  a 
story  cannot  be  delivered  unless  it  is  actually  felt  by 
the  messenger.    Hence,  one  must  never  attempt  to  tell 
a  story  one  does  not  feel.    The  sham  of  pretense  is 
apparent  at  once;  the  appreciation  must  be  genuine. 
The  final  test  before  telling  a  story  is,  "Does  the  narra- 
tor enjoy  the  telling?" 

3.  Aim  at  Correct  Technique. — The  technique  of 
the  telling  has  considerable  influence  in  determining 
the  appeal  and  the  effect  which  the  story  will  make. 
Hence  we  must  be  sure  of  a  number  of  factors  that 
determine  effective,  well-polished  technique. 

(a)  Know  your  story.  In  the  telling  there  must 
be  no  halting  for  a  name,  a  place,  or  a  date.  The 
narrator  must  not  allow  the  story  to  show  contra- 
dictions of  facts  or  incidents.  The  story  must  be  so 

97 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

familiar  that  at  no  point  does  it  become  necessary  to 
improvise.  It  must  have  the  smoothness  of  a  personal 
incident,  free  from  every  suggestion  of  effort  and 
labor. 

(b)  The  story  need  not  be  memorized.    To  secure 
the  proper  grace  and  ease  of  narration  many  profes- 
sional story-tellers  memorize  their  stories  in  their  early 
attempts.    The  opinion  seems  general  that  in  memori- 
zation there  is  grave  danger  of  becoming  stilted  and 
artificial.     As  the  words  fall  mechanically  from  the 
lips,  they  betray  a  lack  of  spontaneity. 

(c)  Proper  physical  conditions  must  be  secured. 
If  possible,  children  ought  to  be  seated  in  a  semicircle, 
or  in  two  semicircles,   while   listening   to   the   story. 
With  the  unfortunate  furniture  which  prevails  this  is 
impossible,  but  in  almost  every  class  children  can  be 
brought  closer  to  the  narrator.     The  children  must 
always  see  the  teacher's  face ;  they  must  be  "physically 
close  to  be  mentally  close." 

(d)  The  voice  is  the  chief  agent  in  technique.  The 
teacher  must  never  stop  the  story  to  admonish  William 
or  Mary  for  a  petty  offense.    Continue  with  the  story, 
in  the  hope  that  it  has  enough  charm  and  interest  to 
quiet  the  children.     The  voice  should  at  all  times  be 
sympathetic  and  subdued.    A  loud  voice  kills  all  feel- 
ing and  makes  proper  atmosphere  and  appeal  impossi- 
ble.   But  there  is  no  reason  for  painful  refinement  or 
an  artificial  whisper. 

(e)  Be  in  the  mood.    The  best  means  to  get  oneself 
into  the  proper  emotional  setting  is  to  have  the  charac- 

98 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER  OF   PRIMARY   READING 

teristic  picture  of  the  story  flash  repeatedly  through 
one's  mind.  There  must  be  a  sincere  effort  to  take  on 
the  dominant  mood  from  the  very  beginning. 

(f)  Tell  it  "simply,  directly,  dramatically"  This 
is  the  essence  of  Miss  Bryant's  advice.  "Simply" 
cautions  against  posing  and  affectations.  "Directly" 
advises  that  we  go  straight  through  the  story,  get  to 
its  very  heart,  but  with  no  explanation.  "Dramati- 
cally" cautions  to  avoid  the  mannerisms  of  the  elocu- 
tionist. It  urges  a  vivid,  responsive,  sincere  narra- 
tion, with  the  gestures,  the  voice,  and  the  speech 
pauses  of  natural  life.  If  the  story  itself  cannot 
touch  the  child's  heart,  no  ranting  or  gesticulating 
will. 

The  Moral. — Many  an  excellent  story  loses  its  ap- 
peal, fails  to  grip  the  children  and  provoke  the  de- 
signed response  because  of  the  moralizing  indulged  in 
by  the  teacher.  "Don't  Moralize"  should  be  embla- 
zoned in  shining  letters  as  a  warning  against  the  com- 
mon pitfall.  Let  the  story,  through  its  sentiments, 
make  its  own  appeal.  If  the  story  cannot,  the  teacher 
cannot.  An  explanation  or  a  concrete  application  that 
is  deemed  necessary  may  be  given  briefly  at  some  point 
during  the  story,  but  in  the  end  the  story  must  teach 
its  own  lesson ;  the  final  appeal  must  be  the  appeal  made 
by  the  story  itself.  No  story  has  ever  made  a  good 
child  of  a  bad  one.  But  the  cumulative  effect  of  story 
upon  story,  appeal  upon  appeal,  has  a  keen  and  subtle 
influence  which  we  cannot  estimate.  The  moralizer 
robs  the  story  of  its  lasting  effect. 

99 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


SUGGESTED  READING 

BRYANT,  SARAH  CONE.  How  to  Tell  Stories.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Co. 

BRYANT,  SARAH  CONE.  Stories  to  TelL  Houghton,  Mif- 
flin  Co. 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  AND  SCOTT.  Teaching  of  English, 
81-98. 

CHUBB,  P.    The  Teaching  of  English,  chaps.  VI,  IX. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  English,  chaps.  VI,  X. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  The  Elementary  Course  in  English,, 
pp.  57-121,  and  the  Appendix.  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press. 

HUEY,  EDMUND  B.  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing, chaps.  XIII,  XIX. 

LAING,  MARY  E.  Reading,  a  Manual  for  Teachers, 
chaps.  XV,  XVI,  XVII. 

MOSES,  MONTROSE  J.  Children's  Books  and  Reading. 
Mitchell  Kennedy. 

PARTRIDGE,  E.  N.,  and  G.  E.  Story  Telling  in  School 
and  Home.  Sturgis  and  Walton. 

REEDER,  R.  R.  Historical  Development  of  School  Read- 
ers and  of  Methods  of  Teaching  Reading.  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Phil.  Psy.  and  Ed.f 
viii,  No.  2.  Macmillan  Co. 

READING  LISTS  FOR  CHILDREN.  A.  L.  A.  List,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  Pittsburgh  Library  List.  Chicago  Public 
Library,  "Help  to  Teachers,"  No.  I.  New  York 
Public  Library,  Juvenile  List.  Course  of  Study  in 
Reading,  Indianapolis,  Indiana, 

100 


THE   SUBJECT-MATTER  -OF  PRIMARY   READING 

ST.  JOHN,  ED.  P.  Stories  and  Story  Telling  in  Moral 
and  Religious  Education.  Pilgrim  Press,  Boston 
and  New  York. 

VOSTROVSKY,  CLARA.  A  Study  of  Children's  Reading 
Tastes.  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vi,  523-535. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PHONICS:  THE  STUDY  OF  SOUND  PRODUCTION 

The  Objects  of  Phonics. — However  literary  a  reading 
method  may  be  in  its  inception  and  early  development, 
its  final  efficiency  is  appreciably  decreased  if  it  does 
not  develop  power  for  independent  reading  by  reduc- 
ing the  recognition  and  interpretation  of  symbols  to 
the  plane  of  habit.  Phonics,  or  phonetics,  must  be 
coordinate  with  thought  in  any  reading  method,  for 
the  following  reasons: 

1.  The  child  must  develop  a  habit  of  attacking  new 

words  that  occur  in  his  reading. 

2.  Ability  to  recognize  these  new  word-forms  is 

determined  by  a  knowledge  of  phonograms  and 
the  sounds  which  they  represent.  This  knowl- 
edge of  phonics  serves  an  equally  important 
role  in  spelling. 

3.  The  correct  sound  cannot  be  uttered  unless  the 

child  hears  it  correctly.  A  study  of  phonics 
must  sharpen  auditory  perception  and  develop 
greater  sensitiveness  for  correct  sound  through 
systematic  ear  training. 

4.  Correct  sound  cannot  be  uttered  unless  the  child 

has  perfect  control  of  the  necessary  organs  of 
102 


PHONICS 

speech.  Through  phonic  drills  the  child  learns 
to  use  the  organs  of  speech  in  perfect  coordi- 
nation. 

5.  A  systematic  and  graded  study  of  phonics  de- 
velops clear  articulation,    correct    enunication, 
and  proper  voice  control;  without  these,  the 
purity  of  spoken  English  degenerates  to  the 
careless  and  vulgar  level  of  the  street. 
The  Necessary  Facts  of  Phonics. — The    efficiency    of 
the  teacher's  work  in  phonics  will  be  determined  by 
her  knowledge  of  the  basic  facts  of  sound  production, 
as  well  as  by  her  pedagogical  expertness.     We  must 
summarize,  therefore,  the  necessary  basis  of  facts. 

Terms  Defined. — The  terms  phonic  and  phonetic 
are  used  loosely  in  the  literature  of  reading.  Most 
writers  make  no  distinction  between  them  beyond  the 
diacritical  marks  that  characterize  phonetics.  Some 
authors  use  phonics  to  refer  to  the  study  of  sound, 
and  phonetics,  in  a  larger  sense,  to  include  sound  and 
its  representation  by  symbols.  Since  these  distinctions 
are  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance, 
we  may  define  both  phonics  and  phonetics  as  the  sci- 
ence of  speech  sound,  while  a  phonogram  is  merely 
the  written  representation  of  a  sound.  The  symbols 
bf  d,  k,  ight,  ing,  f,  are  therefore  phonograms. 

What  is  Speech? — We  must  distinguish  two  impor- 
tant phases  of  speech,  the  organic  and  the  acoustic. 
The  former  refers  to  the  organs  of  speech  production, 
which  can  be  grouped  under  three  heads:  (i)  Or- 
gans of  Articulation:  teeth,  tongue,  lips,  and  palate; 

103 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

(2)  Organs  of  Breath  and  Voice:  vocal  chords,  laryn- 
geal  muscles,  glottis;  (3)  Organs  of  Cooperation: 
chest,  abdominal  muscles,  lungs,  diaphragm,  etc.  The 
great  number  of  cooperating  organs  necessary  for 
speech  explains  why  accurate  articulation  and  enuncia- 
tion are  impossible  very  often  with  young  children, 
who  have  not  developed  reliable  coordination;  why 
speech  is  physically  fatiguing;  why  speech,  which,  un- 
der ordinary  circumstances  may  be  careful,  often  be- 
comes careless  during  fatigue;  why  conditions  which 
are  enervating  always  aggravate  speech  difficulties  of 
stammerers,  and  why  habits  of  correct  speech  are  de- 
veloped with  such  difficulty  in  foreign-born  children. 
The  acoustic  phase  of  speech  concerns  itself  only  with 
the  quality  of  sound,  control  of  breath,  and  resonance. 

In  the  light  of  its  organic  and  acoustic  aspects, 
speech  is  only  breath  expelled  by  the  lungs  and  modi- 
fied either  in  the  throat  or  in  the  mouth.  If  the  reader 
will  merely  exhale  a  breath  through  the  mouth  he  will 
find  that  no  speech  sound  results.  Let  him  now  expel 
a  breath  again,  and  modify  it  in  the  throat,  and  he  will 
recognize  some  vowel  sound;  the  utterance  of  ah,  or 
eh,  will  illustrate  this  process.  If  he  will  now  expel 
breath  and  not  interfere  with  it  until  it  gets  into  the 
mouth  chamber,  but  there  subject  it  to  some  modifi- 
cation, a  consonant  sound  will  be  produced.  In  giving 
the  sound  of  s,  t,  p,  he  will  go  through  this  process. 

Classification  of  Sound  According  to  the  Manner  of 
Production. — An  analysis  of  the  mode  of  speech  pro- 
duction, i.  e.,  breath  expelled  by  the  lungs  and  modi- 

104 


PHONICS 


fied  by  the  throat  or  the  mouth,  gives  three  classes  of 
sounds,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following  table : 


How  Produced 

Illustration 

Technical  Names 

I.  Those  in  which  there  is 
mere  breath  explosion 
or  fiction. 
2.  Those  in  which  there  is 
a  vocal  murmur  modi- 
fied by  the  size  and  the 
shape  of  the  mouth  . 
3,  Those    produced    by 
combining  breath  ex- 
plosion or  friction  with 
a  vocal  murmur  

wh-p-l-k-f-lh  as  in  thin 
din  ate,  at,  far,  fall. 

•ui—h—A—v   m  th   an   in    thtm 

Pure  Consonants,  Atonies, 
Surds. 

Breath  consonants. 
Vowels,  Vocals,  Tonics. 

Semi-Consonants,  Sonanta, 
Subtonics,  Voiced  Con- 
sonants. 

The  reader  can  best  understand  this  grouping  by 
actually  uttering  these  sounds  and  studying  the  proc- 
esses involved. 

The  Consonant  Further  Considered. — From  the  table 
it  is  evident  that  consonants  are  the  result  of  "audible 
friction,  or  stopping  of  the  breath,  in  some  part  of  the 
mouth  or  throat. "  All  consonants  can  therefore  be 
whispered,  while  no  vowel  can.  An  attempt  to  whis- 
per the  sounds  of  wh  and  wf  p  and  b,  t  and  d,  k  and  g, 
th  as  in  thin,  th  as  in  them,  will  reveal  the  fact  that 
the  pure  consonants  which  are  produced  by  mere 
breath  explosion  or  friction  can  be  whispered  more 
softly  and  with  greater  ease  than  those  which  have 
an  element  of  vocal  murmur  in  them.  Here  we  have 
the  reason  for  the  usual  classification  of  consonant 
sounds  into  "voiced"  and  "unvoiced,"  such  as  is 
given  below.  Consonants  are  usually  more  important 
in  oral  speech  than  vowels,  for  their  careless  utter- 

105 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


ance  does  more  to  produce  lack  of  clearness  than 
wrong  vowel  values.  Let  the  reader  speak  a  sentence 
twice,  first  giving  the  vowels  wrong  values  and  then 
slurring  the  consonants;  he  will  notice  that,  while  the 
first  reading  gives  mispronunciations  the  second  pro- 
duces an  unintelligible  result.  The  following  table *  of 
consonant  elements  in  the  English  tongue  is  much  used 
today;  it  groups  the  sounds  not  in  alphabetical  order, 
but  according  to  the  mode  and  place  of  utterance. 

TABLE  OF  CONSONANT  ELEMENTS  m  ENGLISH 


Nasal 

Mode  and  Place  of  Utterance 

Momentary 

Continuous 

~C5nT 

tinuous 

Surd 

Sonant 

Surd 

Sonant 

Sonant 

or 

or 

or 

or 

or 

Breath 

Voiced 

Breath 

Voiced 

Voiced 

Lips 

p 

i 

m 

m 

Lips  and  Teeth 

/ 

t 

Tongue  and  Teeth 

Mink 

th  em 

Tongue  and  Hard  Palate  (forward) 
Tongue  and  Hard  Palate  (back) 
Tongue,  Hard  Palate  and  Soft  Palate 

?t 

ch 

d 

s 
sh 

8.T 

zh.r 
y* 

w 

Tongue  and  Soft  Palate 

k 

g 

«f 

Indeterminate  (Various  Places) 

h 

Vowels  Further  Considered. — A  vowel,  we  saw,  is 
nothing  more  than  voice  (breath  murmured  in  the 
throat),  modified  by  the  shape  of  the  mouth.  Let  the 
reader  utter  the  vowel  sounds  in  the  words  bee,  gay, 
ask,  cwt,  awful,  pool,  and  notice  that  the  same  voice 
is  used  in  all,  but  the  configuration  of  the  mouth  is 
changed  by  the  movements  of  the  tongue,  lower  jaw, 
lips,  and  soft  palate.  The  mouth  is  a  resonance  cham- 

-  COE  and  CHRISTIE.  Story  Hour  Readers  Manual,  127.  HER- 
VEY  and  Hix.  Horace  Mann  Readers;  Daily  Lesson  Plans, 
xlviii. 

IOD 


PHONICS 


ber,  which  changes  the  quality  of  a  vowel  with  its 
change  in  shape.  Vowels  are  the  musical  elements  in 
speech,  for  they  can  all  be  sung. 

Since  the  changing  value  of  vowel  sounds  is  pro- 
duced by  changing  the  configuration  of  the  mouth,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  arrange  the  vowels  in  a  graded 
scale  so  that,  in  going  from  each  successive  one,  the 
shape  of  the  mouth  chamber  changes  gradually.  The 
old  classification  studied  the  sounds  of  a  as  a  (ate), 
a  (at),  a  (far),  a  (fall);  then  of  e  as  e  (mere),  e 
(nest),  e  (her)  ;  then  of  i,  o,  and  u.  There  is  obvi- 
ously no  gradation  of  vowel  values  in  this  series.  Bell 
arranged  the  vowel  values  in  the  following  sequence, 
according  to  their  values.  If  the  reader  will  sound 
the  successive  vowels  a  few  times  to  become  familiar 
with  them,  and  then  repeat  the  exercise  and  note  the 
changing  positions  of  tongue  and  lips,  he  will  see  at 
once  the  basic  principle  in  this  sequence * : 


Lip  Changes 


Bell's  Vowel  Chart 


The  lips  are  tense   C  I 
and  parallel  at  ee  -s    2 
(bee)  and  *  (p*n)    L  3 

ee 
i 

a 

Gong) 

(short) 
(long) 

bee 
ptn 

gay 

4 

e 

(short) 

met 

(loner) 

e'er 

5 

a 

(short) 

hat 

The  lips  are  re- 

6 

a 

(long) 

ask 

laxed  and  round-  - 

7 

a 

(long) 

father 

ed  at  a  (ask) 

8 

e 

(long) 

h«r 

9 

u 

(short) 

cut 

(long) 

curtain 

10 

o 

(short) 

not 

II 

aw 

(long) 

awful 

The  lips  are  puck- 

12 

0 

(long) 

old 

ered  at  oo  (good) 

13 

00 

(short) 

good 

oo 

(long) 

pool            J 

The  tongue  gradually  moves 
down  and  back  in  going  from 
ee  (bee)  to  e  (her) 


The  back  of  the  tongue  grad- 
f.ually  moves  up  and  back  in 
Agoing  from  u  (cut)  to  oo  (pool) 


Value  of  Scientific  Gradation  of  Vowel  Values. — 
The  practical  teacher  may  admit  that  Bell's  vowel 
1  Rearranged  by  Prof.  Frederick  B.  Robinson. 

107 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

table  is  more  logical  and  even  more  scientific  than  the 
old  classification  of  the  sounds  according  to  a,  e,  i,  of 
and  u,  but  still  may  ask,  "What  is  its  practical  peda- 
gogical value  ?"  Let  us  assume  that  a  child  of  foreign 
birth  cannot  utter  the  correct  vowel  value  in  the  words 
cut,  up,  sup ;  each  of  these  he  reads  as  cot,  op,  and  sop, 
respectively.  Imitation  proves  useless,  for  the  child 
has  few  English  sounds  in  terms  of  which  to  apper- 
ceive  the  vowel  sound  in  question.  Instruction  as  to 
proper  relative  positions  of  the  organs  of  speech  is 
equally  useless,  because  the  differences  in  the  organic 
processes  of  u  in  cut  and  o  in  not  are  too  slight  to  ad- 
mit of  demonstration  to  such  a  child.  Let  the  teacher 
have  recourse  to  the  Bell  table  and  require  children  to 
sound  the  vowels  in  succession,  from  number  one 
through  eight.  If  the  child  can  sound  these  correctly, 
the  vowel  in  question,  u  in  up,  will  be  uttered  without 
difficulty,  because  the  gradual  and  successive  changes 
in  the  configurations  of  the  mouth  for  the  first  eight 
sounds  will  practically  force  the  proper  mouth  con- 
figuration for  the  ninth  vowel  value.  The  phonic  les- 
sons in  any  system  of  reading  should  teach  the  vowels 
in  this  scientific  gradation,  rather  than  in  the  hap- 
hazard sequence  which  is  determined  by  successive 
sight  words. 

Diacritical  Marks. — A  source  of  endless  strife  in 
phonic  work  is  the  use  of  auxiliary  symbols  to  fix  vari- 
able sounds.  Most  of  the  recent  methods  either  en- 
tirely eliminate  diacritical  marks,  or  else  use  them  only 
in  exceptional  cases.  Experience  shows  that  diacriti- 

108 


PHONICS 

cal  marks  in  early  reading  are  usually  of  little  service 
to  children  and  sometimes  are  the  cause  of  much  con- 
fusion. But  this  does  not  mean  that  they  are  never  to 
be  taught.  While  they  are  unnecessary  in  early  phonic 
and  word  recognition,  they  are  invaluable  for  later  use 
when  the  dictionary  becomes  an  important  factor  in 
the  child's  linguistic  studies.  Some  standard  set  of 
diacritical  marks  should  be  divided  among  three  or 
four  grades,  and  taught  gradually  in  lessons  designed 
to  develop  ability  to  use  the  dictionary. 

The  Gradation  of  Phonograms. — It  is  obvious  that 
no  attempt  can  be  made  to  grade  phonograms  unless 
there  are  definite  principles  in  accordance  with  which 
we  are  to  distinguish  a  difficult  from  a  simple  phono- 
gram. The  distinction  between  simple  and  compound 
phonograms  affords  no  basis  of  gradation.  A  simple 
phonogram  is  a  one-letter  phonogram,  like  f,  I,  m,  p, 
k,  w,  while  a  compound  phonogram  is  one  that  con- 
tains a  number  of  letters,  like  ing,  ight,  ar,  er,  or  at. 
Length  is  no  index  of  the  difficulty  of  a  phonogram. 

Ward,  in  his  "Rational  Method  of  Reading,"  gives 
the  following  three  principles  that  determine  which 
phonograms  shall  be  taught  early: 

1.  Those  that  are  uttered  with  ease  by  the  children: 
m>  P)  i^  s  are  examples  of  these,  while  th,  wh,  r  can- 
not be  included  under  this  head. 

2.  Those  that  can  be  prolonged  into  words  without 
losing  their  identity.     The  phonogram  ight  is  com- 
pound, but,  when  it  is  sounded  in  words  like  light, 
bright,  night,  its  sound,  It,  is  as  clear  as  when  it  is 

109 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

sounded  by  itself.  But,  let  the  reader  sound  the  pho- 
nograms ar,  er,  or,  first,  as  three  separate  sounds,  and 
then  speak  the  words  beggar,  editor,  and  singer.  The 
untrained  ear  hardly  differentiates  the  sound  of  beg- 
ger  from  beggar,  or  editor  from  editor.  Hence,  er, 
ar,  ir,  ur,  or,  are  classed  as  difficult  phonograms. 

3.  Those  that  are  common  to  many  words  of  fre- 
quent use.  The  phonogram  th  (voiced)  is  difficult, 
but  must  be  taught  early  because  the  frequency  of  its 
occurrence  tends  to  make  its  correct  enunciation  more 
simple. 

If  a  reading  method  begins,  not  with  a  few  unre- 
lated sentences,  but  with  an  entire  story,  the  stock  of 
sight  words  is  sufficiently  large  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  choose  only  such  words  for  phonic  analysis  as  will 
teach  the  easier  phonograms  first 

How  to  Teach  a  Phonogram. — Let  us  assume  that  the 
phonogram  ight  is  to  be  taught.  How  shall  the  lesson 
be  developed,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results  in 
the  limited  time?  The  progress  of  the  successive  steps 
is  indicated  in  the  following  outline : 

i.  The  Teacher's  Preparation. — The  teacher  must 
ask: 

a.  Is  the  phonogram  in  the  correct  place  in  the 

graded  series  of  phonic  lessons? 

b.  Does  the  phonic  element  ight  grow  out  of  sight 

words  previously  learned? 

c.  Will  the  phonic  element  be  useful  in  later  word- 

building?    Will  it  give  the  child  ability  to  read 
a  long  list  of  words  independently? 
no 


PHONICS 

d.  Have  all  the  mechanical  details  been  mastered? 
i.  Is  there  doubt  about  the  pronunciation? 
ii.  Is  there  doubt  about  the  position  of  the  organs 
of  speech,  in  order  to  produce  the  sound  of 
ight? 

iii.  Is  the  complete  list  of  words  containing  the 
phonogram  ight  ready? 

2.  The  Lesson. — a.  Ear  training  is  the  initial  exer- 
cise of  the  lesson.  The  children  hear  the  teacher  pro- 
nounce a  number  of  words  containing  the  phonogram 
ight,  with  exaggerated  clearness.  The  children  are 
then  called  upon  to  sound  the  words  individually,  and 
are  criticized  by  the  teacher  and  their  classmates.  The 
teacher  tells  the  children  a  story,  and  introduces  the 
words  might,  right,  fight,  sight,  etc.,  with  unusual  dis- 
tinctness and  clearness,  and  then  calls  on  the  pupils  for 
individual  reproductions  of  these  words  or  sentences. 
Another  procedure  is  to  give  the  children  a  few  of 
these  words,  might,  iight,  and  ask  them  to  think  of 
other  words  that  rhyme  with  these.  Any  method  that 
will  sharpen  auditory  perception,  make  the  children 
sensitive  to  the  sound  of  ight,  and  give  them  a  good 
apperceptive  auditory  stock,  is  an  excellent  preparation 
for  the  lesson. 

b.  Phonic  analysis,  which  isolates  the  sound  of 
ight,  is  the  next  effort  in  the  lesson.  This  the  teacher 
can  accomplish  in  one  of  two  ways:  (i)  by  exagger- 
ated slowness  of  uterance,  ///  it,  mmm  it,  or  (ii)  by 
a  comparison  of  the  family  of  ight  words.  In  the  sec- 

iii 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


ond  procedure  the  teacher  asks  the  children  to  listen 
for  a  similar  sound  in  the  following  series,  right,  fight, 
tight,  etc.  When  the  sound  of  ight  is  isolated,  chil- 
dren are  called  individually  to  utter  it  with  great  dis- 
tinctness. This  step  ends  when  the  children  learn  the 


and 


for  the  sound. 


visual  symbols  "ight 

c.  The  synthetic  step  or  the  blend  is  the  last  step 
in  the  lesson,  for  the  child  now  learns  to  read  any 
word  whose  basal  phonogram  is  ight.  It  is  here  that 
the  fruits  of  phonic  analysis  and  ear  training  are 
reaped,  and  the  child  develops  independence  in  read- 
ing. To  facilitate  the  drill  of  blending  known  phonic 
elements  with  ight  to  produce  a  new  word,  mechani- 
cal devices  are  suggested.  Typical  of  these  easily 
made  aids  we  may  mention  the  following:  An  ordi- 


112 


PHONICS 

nary  board,  about  30  inches  long  and  3  inches  wide, 
has  a  hole  (y)  at  one  end  by  means  of  which  it  is 
suspended  from  the  frame  of  the  blackboard,  and  a 
nail  (JT)  at  the  other,  which  acts  as  a  pivot  on  which 
circular  cardboards  are  revolved.  A  circular  disk, 
having  a  diameter  of  about  15  inches,  is  cut  from 
ordinary  cardboard.  The  center  is  perforated  and  is 
revolved  on  the  pivot  nail.  On  the  circular  disk  the 
teacher  writes  s,  I,  f,  n,  r,  t,  and  on  the  board  ight. 
By  revolving  the  cardboard  disk,  the  words  sight,  light, 
light,  etc.,  can  be  produced  instantaneously.  Other 
drills,  with  stairs,  ladders,  railroad  ties,  games,  etc., 
will  be  found  in  manuals  of  primary  reading.  These 
mechanical  devices  enable  the  drill  to  become  spirited 
and  help  toward  permanent  fixation  and  the  inculca- 
tion of  the  habit  of  instantaneous  recognition. 

General  Directions  for  All  Phonic  Lessons — Cumula- 
tive experience  has  shown  the  wisdom  of  certain  de- 
vices in  the  teaching  of  phonics,  and  the  limitations 
of  others.  We  must,  therefore,  sum  up  for  the  class 
teacher,  the  constructive  suggestions  for  all  phonic 
lessons. 

i.  The  Analytic  Synthetic  Procedure. — Every  phon- 
ic lesson  must  begin  with  words  containing  the  spe- 
cific phonogram  to  be  taught.  The  words  selected 
for  phonic  analysis  must  also  be  such  as  are  known  at 
sight.  The  sequence  of  the  complete  lesson  is  there- 
fore: from  sight  words  to  phonogram,  and  then  back 
again  to  a  rich  stock  of  words  formed  by  phonic  syn- 
thesis. 

"3 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO  READ 

2.  Motivation. — As  far  as  possible  the  objects  of 
phonic  drills  shall  be  made  a  conscious  goal  for  the 
children.    After  a  few  lessons,  they  should  be  led  to 
realize  that  phonic  mastery  means  better  speech  and 
independent  reading.     The  new  attitude  which  the 
children  will  take  toward  ensuing  lessons  dispels  the 
seeming  drudgery,  and  guarantees  active  cooperation 
and  interest  in  personal  progress. 

3.  In  the  Blend,  Place  the  Burden  on  the  Child. — 
The  test  of  the  efficiency  of  the  lesson  lies  in  the  abil- 
ity of  the  child  to  read  new  words.     It  is  therefore 
unwise  to  give  undue  aid  during  the  synthetic  step. 
If  unusual  difficulty  is  here  experienced,  the  cause  lies 
in  lack  of  preparation  or  lack  of  mastery  of  phonic 
elements  previously  taught. 

4.  The  Content  Aspect  in  Phonics. — Although  phon- 
ics deals  with  formalism  in  language,  thought  need 
not  be  excluded.    All  results  of  phonic  blends  should 
be  real  words.    Frequently  children  should  be  required 
to  give  evidence  of  ability  to  recognize  new  words  by 
acting  them  out,  drawing  them,  or  pointing  out  the 
objects  they  represent.    Thus,  the  phonogram  taught 
was  ing;  when  the  teacher  puts  the  word  sing  on  the 
board  during  the  blend,  the  child  regards  it  as  a  re- 
quest, and  sings,  do,  re,  me;  at  the  word  ring,  another 
child  draws  a  circle  on  the  board.     These  exercises 
tend  to  reestablish  the  basic  association  in  reading, 
symbol-thought  association,  and  add  an  interest  which 
comes  from  dealing  with  ideas,  rather  than  with  pure 
form. 

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PHONICS 

5.  Instantaneous  Recognition. — It  should  be  the  aim 
of  the  synthetic  step  to  develop  almost  instantaneous 
recognition  of  new  words.    A  well-graded  course  that 
unfolds  the  phonic  elements  slowly,  and  provides  suffi- 
cient drill,  can  develop  the  habit  of  rapid  word  recog- 
nition   without    slow,    laborious    lip-reading.     In   all 
grades  lip-reading  should  be  discouraged;  in  the  third 
year  it  should  be  prohibited,  for  it  tends  to  develop 
habits  of  word  reading  instead  of  thought  acquisition. 

6.  Grouping  According  to  Specific  Inabilities. — In 
all  phonic  work,  concert  answering  should  be  regarded 
skeptically.    Each  child,  whether  correct  or  not  in  his 
utterances,  becomes  an  unconscious    model    for    his 
neighbor  and  the  successive  imitations  sink  gradually, 
but  surely,  to  lower  levels.    The  rapid  individual  reci- 
tation is  imperative  in  phonic  lessons. 

The  mode  of  instruction,  as  well  as  the  conduct  of 
the  recitation,  must  be  thoroughly  individualized.  All 
children  have  their  difficulties  in  phonics,  but  not  all 
labor  under  the  same  limitations.  Some  can  recog- 
nize all  phonograms,  but  are  defective  in  enunciation; 
other  children  utter  some  sounds  accurately,  but  are 
unable  to  reproduce  others,  etc.  It  is  evident  that  any 
system  of  class  teaching  in  phonics  will  give  children 
only  passing  attention  in  their  weak  points,  and  expend 
much  more  time  in  drilling  on  what  they  know.  As  soon 
as  practical,  the  class  should  be  grouped  according  to 
weaknesses  along  important  lines,  and  the  instruction 
should  seek  to  give  to  each  child  his  specific  needs. 

7.  Undue  Emphasis  on  Organic  Phase  of  Speech. — 

"5 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

Advisable  as  it  is  to  teach  the  correct  relative  position 
of  the  organs  of  speech  in  difficult  sounds,  it  is  never- 
theless wise  to  realize  the  limitations  of  this  informa- 
tion. The  following  procedure  for  teaching  correct 
sound  is  outlined  for  teachers  in  a  certain  manual: 
(a)  Utter  the  sound;  (b)  explain  position  of  organs 
of  speech;  (c)  let  each  child  with  mirror  in  hand  study 
the  relative  position  of  his  own  teeth,  tongue,  etc.; 
(d)  let  the  children  attempt  the  pronunciation.  Here 
we  have  an  illustration  of  undue  emphasis  on  the  or- 
ganic aspect  of  speech,  which  must  be  condemned. 

All  speech  eventually  sinks  to  the  level  of  habit.  The 
aim  must  therefore  be  to  make  utterance  of  speech  an 
unconscious  process.  Let  the  teacher  utter  the  sound 
with  exceptional  clearness  and  accuracy,  and  call  upon 
the  children  individually  to  imitate.  A  few  attempts 
and  repetitions  will  show  that  a  majority  of  the  class 
learns  new  sounds  by  imitation,  and  through  repetition 
develops  the  habit  of  correct  speech.  To  emphasize 
the  organic  aspect  of  speech  to  these  children  makes 
speech  a  conscious  process  for  them.  It  should  also 
be  noted  that  a  nervous  child,  who  often  succeeds 
when  he  imitates  the  teacher,  fails  after  he  learns  the 
correct  position  of  the  organs  of  speech,  for  now  he 
has  a  new  set  of  conditions  to  control  and  added 
coordinations  to  make  consciously.  Only  those  chil- 
dren who  cannot  reproduce  a  sound  correctly  after 
repeated  attempts  to  imitate  the  clearly  enunciated 
speech  of  the  teacher,  should  be  introduced  to  the  or- 
ganic phase  of  speech. 

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PHONICS 

The  Elimination  of  Habitual  Mispronunciations The 

occasional  mispronunciations  that  one  hears  from  chil- 
dren, municipal,  executive,  and  the  like,  need  cause 
little  worry.  These  drop  out  in  time  in  the  course  of 
experience,  because  of  corrections  by  teachers,  contact 
with  older  people  who  speak  correctly,  attendance  at 
lectures,  etc.  These  errors  are  usually  personal,  and 
differ  with  each  individual.  The  types  of  mispronun- 
ciation that  must  be  the  concern  of  the  school  are 
those  that  are  heard  in  ever-increasing  circles,  and 
tend  to  drag  our  spoken  language  to  the  level  of  the 
street.  Errors  like  Jat,  goft,  hist-ry,  singin',  w'ite, 
t'row,  Toosday,  are  no  longer  individual  weaknesses, 
but  are  found  in  large  groups  in  every  class;  their 
eradication  is  an  imperative  duty.  It  is  evident  that 
these  linguistic  mutilations  can  be  traced  to  definite 
contributing  causes — and  that  remedial  measures 
which  do  not  take  cognizance  of  these  causes  and  seek 
to  counteract  them,  are  inevitably  doomed  to  failure. 
Our  procedure  will  be  to  ascertain  the  causes  and  then 
evolve  a  remedial  program. 

Causes  of  Habitual  Mispronunciations. — Chief 
among  the  conditions  that  make  for  slovenly  speech 
we  must  enumerate  the  following: 

i.  Foreign  linguistic  characteristics  are  carried  over 
into  English.  The  Jewish  child  hears  and  speaks  in 
his  home  the  language  of  peculiar  gutturals.  He 
brings  these  over  to  his  English,  and  turns  song  into 
sonk,  and  Long  Island  into  Lonk  Kiland;  the  German 
child  brings  the  flat,  dull  d  and  the  broad  vowels  of 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

his  language  to  the  word  that,  and  turns  it  into  daat; 
another  child  of  foreign  parentage  intonates  his  Eng- 
lish with  the  cadence  peculiar  to  the  language  of  his 
parents. 

2.  The  influence  of  the  street  helps  to  keep  spoken 
English  on  a  low  level.    Few  children  have  the  cour- 
age to  carry  the  correctly  enunciated  th  or  wh  of  those 
and  which,  or  the  correct  u  in  duty,  to  their  playmates. 
In  the  few  hours  allotted  to  it  the  school  must  engage 
in  conflict  with    innumerable    retarding    forces    that 
make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  child's  social  environ- 
ment.    Not  only  must  the  school  develop  habits  of 
correct  speech,  but  it  must  spend  much  of  its  energies 
undermining  existing  habits  of  incorrect  speech. 

3.  Indifference  to  proper  speech,  or  sheer  careless- 
ness of  utterance   contributes  materially  toward   the 
slovenliness  of  the  language  of  the  street.     Not  until 
children  understand  the  need  of  correctly  spoken  lan- 
guage will  they  experience  a  motive  sufficiently  vital 
to  stir  in  them  an  honest  endeavor  at  self -improvement 
and  a  pride  in  purity  and  grace  of  speech. 

4.  Lack  of  proper  apperceptive  auditory  basis  is 
another  contributing  cause  of  incorrect  oral  speech. 
Many  children  of  foreign  parentage  hear  so  little  Eng- 
lish that  the  auditory  center  fails  to  interpret  accu- 
rately the  sounds  that  are  made  by  the  teacher.     The 
ear  has  become  so  accustomed  to  the  competing  lan- 
guage that  it  can  no  longer  hear  accurately  the  pure 
English  sound.    Many  such  children  make  no  distinc- 
tion between  t'row  and  throw,  w'ite  and  white,  in 

118 


PHONICS 

their  speech,  because  they  hear  none  in  the  most  accu- 
rately enunciated  speech  of  others.  Tireless  patience, 
repeated  appeals,  exaggerated  enunciation  and  a  more 
intimate  relation  to  the  English  language  in  the  hours 
after  school,  gradually  develop  an  auditory  sensitivity 
which  enables  the  child  to  hear  these  differences. 

5.  Wrong  position  of  the  organs  of  speech  makes 
correct  utterance  impossible.     Where  imitation  fails, 
the  teacher  must  show  the  child  the  necessary  posi- 
tions and  coordinations  of  the  speech  organs. 

6.  Physical  or  physiological  impediments,  like  the 
absence  of  teeth,  poor  articulation  of  teeth,  thickness 
of  tongue,  short  ligaments,  malformation  of  the  jaw, 
are  handicaps  to  correct  speech  that  teachers  must 
note,  for  some  of  these  can  be  corrected  by  surgical 
or  dental  treatment. 

The  Correction  of  Habitual  Errors. — i.  Passing  at- 
tention to  mispronunciations  will  not  develop  habits 
of  correct  speech.  In  every  grade  the  teacher  is  held 
responsible  for  the  correction  of  all  errors  in  children's 
oral  speech.  When  the  mispronunciation  is  heard,  the 
child  is  corrected  and  the  matter  is  dismissed  until  the 
child  offends  again  in  his  pronunciation.  It  is  obvious 
that  such  spasmodic  and  haphazard  correction  lacks 
the  vigor  and  the  concentrated  drill  that  tend  to  eradi- 
cate these  habits  of  erroneous  speech.  To  eliminate 
these,  each  teacher  must  be  held  responsible  for  a  few 
definite  corrections.  The  principal  or  supervisor 
should  list  all  common  mispronunciations  that  occur  in 
children's  speech.  These  should  then  be  subdivided 

119 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

among  the  grades  of  the  first  five  or  six  years.  Such 
a  list  will  not  contain  more  than  eighteen  or  twenty 
common  mispronunciations ;  dividing  these  among  the 
six  grades,  from  the  beginning  of  the  third  year 
through  the  end  of  the  fifth,  we  have  an  average  of 
three  to  a  grade  The  third-year  teacher  feels  that  by 
unrelenting  drill  and  by  emphasis  in  every  lesson,  she 
must  break  the  habit  in  her  children  of  ( i )  dropping 
final  g,  "seeing"  (2)  slurring  or  omitting  r,  "bold," 
and  (3)  turning  th  (them)  into  df  "dem."  In  this 
grade  other  mistakes  are  corrected  when  they  occur, 
but  only  three  are  singled  out  for  vigorous  drill.  In 
this  way,  all  common  errors  can  be  eliminated  by  the 
end  of  the  fifth  school  year.  This  seems  a  reasonable 
result.  But  to  require  every  teacher  in  every  grade 
to  correct  every  error  of  oral  speech  is  to  court  failure. 

2.  Make  a  strong  auditory  appeal     Having  deter- 
mined to  eradicate  cfem  for  f/iem,  the  teacher  now 
sounds  a  list  of  words  that  begin  with  the  voiced  th. 
This  list  is  repeated  two  or  three  times  with  exagger- 
ated enunciation  of  the  th  until  every  ear  reverberates 
with  the  sound  of  the  voiced  th.     If  the  child  hears 
foreign  sounds  in  his  home,  or  incorrect  th  on  the 
street,  his  ear  must  be  forcibly  assailed  by  the  cor- 
rect th. 

3.  Secure  motivation  and  imitation.    After  leading 
children  to  realize  that  correct  pronunciation  has  un- 
mistakable worth  in  their  social  intercourse,  let  them 
reproduce  the  sound  as  made  by  the  teacher.     Those 
who  succeed  are  given  sentences  to  read  that  involve 

1 20 


PHONICS 

d  and  th,  e.  g.,  "Don't  deny  them  those  delights."" 
This  is  kept  up  until  correct  th  becomes  a  habit  in 
speech. 

4.  Explain  organic  processes  to  those  who  fail. 
Only  those  children  who  fail  in  their  repeated  endeav- 
ors to  imitate  the  teacher's  model  speech  must  be 
shown  how  the  organs  of  speech  are  to  be  used  in 
order  to  produce  the  sound  in  question.  Each  pupil 
should  have  a  small  mirror,  and  should  study  the  or- 
ganic processes  necessary  for  correct  utterance  of  the 
sound.  The  children  should  look  at  the  teacher  care- 
fully as  she  whispers  these  sounds  to  them;  they 
should  be  told  to  speak  these  sounds  without  voice  as 
the  teacher  watches  them  and  criticizes  the  positions 
of  the  different  organs  of  speech.  If  the  organic 
phase  is  correct,  children  should  be  called  upon  indi- 
vidually to  produce  the  sound  simultaneously  with  the 
teacher.  As  each  child  succeeds  he  is  put  into  the 
group  that  reads  sentences  designed  to  make  the  cor- 
rect utterance  of  the  sound  an  unconscious  process. 

Infinite  patience  is  required.  After  all  this  careful 
work,  foreign  children,  when  called  upon  to  pronounce 
them,  often  put  the  tongue  between  the  teeth,  vibrate 
the  tongue  a  moment  and  say  ththth — Jem.  These 
children  evidently  hear  the  correct  sound,  have  learned 
its  organic  phase,  but  have  not  yet  developed  the  coor- 
dinations necessary  to  produce  it.  Untiring  drill  will 
bring  results. 

5.  Employ  certain  mechanical  aids.  a.  "Tongue 
Twisters"  is  the  inelegant  name  for  those  artificial 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

rhymes  and  nonsense  jingles  designed  to  give  practice 
in  certain  sounds.  The  famous  query,  "If  Theosophus 
Thistle,  the  successful  thistle  sifter,  sifted  three  thou- 
sand thistles  through  the  thick  of  his  thumb,  then 
where  are  the  three  thousand  thistles  that  Theosophus 
Thistle,  the  successful  thistle  sifter,  sifted  through  the 
thick  of  his  thumb?"  is  an  illustration  of  the  host  of 
tirills  found  in  any  technical  volume  on  phonics.  A 
list  of  these  books  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

b.  The  lisper,  who  turns  all  sounds  of  ^  into  th, 
<e.  g.,  "Thaesar  thaid  that  he  thaw"  for  "Caesar  said 
that  he  saw,"  can  be  helped  if  he  will  assiduously 
practice  reading  such  sentences  in  front  of  a  mirror 
and  keep  pushing  the  tongue,  as  it  comes  forward, 
back  into  the  mouth.    In  saying  "saw,"  the  lisper  puts 
the  tongue  out  too  far,  and  produces  a  soft  th;  as 
soon  as  the  tongue  is  pushed  back  of  the  teeth  the  soft 
th  becomes  an  s,  and  thaw  becomes  saw. 

c.  The  Russian  whose  attachment  for  the  sound  of 
w  leads  him  to  read  wery  wiwacious  for  very  viva- 
cious, can  produce  the  sound  of  v  by  biting  the  lower 
lip  with  the  upper  teeth ;  a  efvery  vivacious  and  villain- 
cms  villain"  will  now  be  read  correctly.    The  person 
who  commits  the  opposite  fault,  viz.,  who  reads,  Veil 
Villiam,  what  vould  you  have?  can  produce  the  sound 
of  w  by  puckering  his  lips,  saying  oo,  oo,  oo}  and  ap- 
proaching his  ringer  gently  to  his  mouth :  oo  now  be- 
comes woo,  and  veil  becomes  a  crude  well;  a  correct 
beginning  is  made,  self-confidence  is  developed,  and 
the  foreigner  approximates  English  pronunciation. 

122 


PHONICS 

d.  The  child  who  cannot  produce  soft  thf  and  says 
free  birds  for  three  birds,  can  learn  to  produce  this 
sound  by  biting  the  tongue  between  the  teeth  and  forc- 
ing the  breath  out  at  the  point  of  contact.  These  sim- 
ple mechanical  aids  when  applied  will  suggest  a  host 
of  auxiliary  devices  for  other  difficulties  if  teachers 
will  carefully  analyze  their  own  organic  processes  in 
speech. 

Serious  Speech.  Defects. — The  study  of  the  more  seri- 
ous speech  defects,  stammering  and  stuttering,  clut- 
tering, etc.,  their  causes,  diagnosis,  and  remedial  meas- 
ures, is  clearly  not  part  of  the  problem  of  teaching 
children  to  read.  These  speech  defects  are  too  seri- 
ous for  treatment  by  the  busy  class  teacher.  Children 
so  afflicted  must  be  examined  by  a  physician  and  by  a 
person  trained  in  the  treatment  of  serious  speech  de- 
fects and  must  receive  expert  individual  attention. 
Special  "Speech  Defect  Classes"  must  be  organized  in 
large  schools  or  in  each  school  district  where  children 
can  be  helped  to  overcome  ailments  which  otherwise 
often  doom  them  to  a  life  of  melancholy  solitude. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

BELL,   ALEXANDER    GRAHAM.     Mechanism   of    Speech, 

Funk  and  Wagnalls. 
COE  and  CHRISTIE.    Story  Hour  Readers,  Manual,  119- 

136.    American  Book  Co. 
DRESSLAR,  F.  B.    School  Hygiene,  chap.  XVIII.     Mac- 

millan  Co. 

123 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  English,  chaps.  Ill,  IV. 

HERVEY  and  Hix.  Horace  Mann  Readers:  Daily  Les- 
son Plans,  pp.  xxvii-lxiv.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

JONES,  DORA  D.  The  Technique  of  Speech.  Harper 
Bros. 

LEVINE,  MICHAEL.  Treatment  of  Stuttering,  Stammer- 
ing and  Lisping  in  a  New  York  City  School.  Psy- 
chological Clinic,  vi,  No.  4,  June,  1912. 

SCRIPTURE,  E.  W.  Stuttering  and  Lisping.  The  Mac- 
millan  Co. 

SCRIPTURE,  E.  W.  Elements  of  Experimental  Phonetics. 
Yale  Bicentennial  Series,  1902. 

SWEET,  HENRY.    Primer  of  Phonetics.    Oxford,  1890. 


CHAPTER  IX 

READING  IN  THE  INTERMEDIARY  GRADES 
(THE  THIRD  YEAR  THROUGH  THE  SIXTH  YEAR.) 

The  Problem  of  Reading  in  the  Intermediary  Grades. 
— Reading  in  the  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  six  years  of 
the  elementary  school  course  is  usually  a  dead  failure. 
The  patient  observer  sees  no  aims  in  the  round  of  les- 
sons, no  organization  that  is  designed  to  achieve  any 
specific  result,  and  no  pleasure  experienced  by  the 
child.  In  the  first  two  years,  the  method  in  reading, 
however  undesirable,  has  system  that  is  determined  by 
definite  and  preconceived  goals;  in  the  intermediary 
grades  reading  is  a  transitional  exercise.  A  selection  in 
the  class  reader  is  announced  and  some  child  is  called 
upon  to  read  aloud  what  the  others  can  read  much 
more  rapidly  to  themselves.  Those  who  become  in- 
terested in  the  content  are  penalized  if  they  do  not 
keep  apace  with  the  child  who  has  been  designated  to 
plod  his  way  through  the  maze  of  phonic  difficulties 
and  expressional  problems.  Those  pupils  who  are  at- 
tentive derive  the  dubious  benefits  which  come  from 
hearing  various  sorts  of  mispronunciations  and  verbal 
mutilations.  In  large  classes  some  children  sometimes 
wait  two  weeks  before  they  are  victimized  for  this  oral 

125 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

reading.  The  child  who  reads  aloud  does  so,  not 
from  a  rational  desire  to  communicate  to  his  class- 
mates an  idea  that  is  interesting  to  him,  but  rather  be- 
cause he  must  run  the  gauntlet  of  criticism  from  the 
teacher.  What  wonder  that  these  oral  renditions  of 
the  gems  of  our  literature  are  flat  and  dispirited,  and 
fail  to  arouse  in  children  even  a  faint  emotional  re- 
sponse? 

The  Aims  of  Intermediary  Reading. — Without  a  defi- 
nite formulation  of  the  ends  that  must  be  attained  all 
method  will  prove  futile.  What,  then,  are  the  legiti- 
mate aims  of  reading  in  these  grades? 

1.  The  Technique  of  English. — The  first  aim  of 
intermediary  reading  may  be  to  teach  language  struc- 
ture, to  give  a  richer  vocabulary,  to  offer  models  of 
composition,  worthy  of  imitation,  or  to  present  any 
of  the  elements  that  make  up  the  formal  aspect  of 
English.     It  is  obvious   that   this    aim    subordinates 
reading  for  thought  acquisition,  and  therefore  has  a 
limited  application  in  oral  reading.     We  must  avoid 
reading  with  a  microscope  and  a  scalpel.    No  literary 
gem  that  throbs  with  life  should  be  studied  on  the 
dissecting  table.     Only  those  facts  of  grammar,  com- 
position and  rhetoric  should  be  taken  up  in  the  reading 
lesson  that  arise  as  natural  problems  in  the  course  of 
reading  for  thought. 

2.  Information. — A  second  aim  of  reading  may  be 
to  acquire  information  of  any  interesting  relation  in 
life.      The  text  may  deal  with  ethical  or  patriotic 
themes;  it  may  tell  of  progress  in  the  sciences  or  in- 

126 


READING   IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

dustry  or  transportation;  it  may  correlate  with  the 
grade  work  in  history  or  geography.  This  informa- 
tional aim  is  often  condemned,  because  teachers  turn 
their  reading  lessons  into  history  or  nature  study  les- 
sons. This  is  manifestly  a  misapplication  of  a  very 
good  idea  in  reading. 

The  informational  aim  tends  to  emphasize  content, 
to  encourage  much  rapid  silent  reading  and  sufficient 
oral  composition  on  the  text.  It  must  therefore  be 
given  a  dignified  place  among  the  aims  of  reading. 

3.  The  Literary  Aim. — This  is  the  most  popular 
end  in  reading,  because  it  offers  content  that  is  pleas- 
urable, natural  and  elevating  in  its  esthetic  and  moral 
appeal.    Its  influence  on  method  is  marked,  for  now 
the   reading   lesson   must   seek   to  uncover   literary 
beauty,  to  instil  a  love  for  good  literary  form,  to  ex- 
plain character  development,  to  lead  children  to  memo- 
rize what  appeals  most  to  them,  so  that  it  becomes 
their  permanent  possession. 

4.  Development    of    the    'Art    of    Reading. — The 
fourth  aim  of  reading  may  be  to  develop  in  each  child 
an  ability  to  read  much  in  little  time,  to  sacrifice  word 
forms  for  the  underlying  thought.    Huey's  indictment 
of  reading  in  the  schools  is :    We  read  too  soon,  too 
little,  too  slowly.    "Too  little"  refers  to  the  tendency 
toward  overthoroughness,  to  the  analysis  of  every  sen- 
tence and  every  language  difficulty;  "too  slowly"  re- 
fers to  the  overemphasis  on  slow,  laborious  oral  read- 
ing, with  its  sacred  regard  for  every  word  and  every 
comma* 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

This  aim  in  reading  should  be  emphasized  where 
reading  ability  is  not  up  to  grade.  It  teaches  the  chil- 
dren to  extract  thought  from  the  printed  page;  it 
teaches  the  teacher  that  too  early  an  insistence  on  oral 
reading  undermines  habits  of  proper  reading. 

5.  Oral  Reading  and  Mastery  of  Symbols. — An- 
other aim  may  prevail  in  a  class  where  the  children 
are  weak  in  phonics  and  experience  difficulty  in  recog- 
nizing words,  thus  being  unable  to  give  proper  oral 
rendition.  In  such  cases,  a  text  should  be  selected  that 
is  rich  in  words  which  allow  phonic  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis. The  devices  that  are  offered  for  the  correction 
of  these  limitations  in  the  chapters  on  primary  reading 
and  phonics  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  these  grades. 

Conclusion. — Each  of  these  aims  has  its  legitimate 
province  and  determines  the  method  of  the  lesson.  It 
is  for  the  teacher  to  select  the  aim  which  is  to  govern 
any  lesson  or  series  of  lessons. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation  for  the  Reading  Lesson. 
— The  success  of  the  lesson  depends  to  a  great  extent 
on  the  teacher's  preparation.  She  must  be  sure  that 
the  selections  are  interesting  and  varied.  If  they  are 
taken  from  a  reader  they  should  not  follow  seriatim, 
but  should  be  grouped  with  a  view  toward  compari- 
sons. These  selections  may  be  appropriate  for  the 
season  and  approaching  holidays.  The  teacher  must 
decide  on  the  governing  aim  and  those  devices  of  meth- 
od which  will  attain  the  end  sought.  She  must  list  the 
difficulties  of  phonics  or  interpretation  that  can  be  an- 
ticipated, and  then  devise  means  of  meeting  these 

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READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

She  must  have  her  illustrative  material,  pictures,  dram- 
atizations, phonic  charts,  ready  before  the  lesson  be- 
gins. These  matters  cannot  be  left  to  the  inspiration 
of  the  moment,  for  they  are  not  a  moment's  work. 

Preparing  the  Class  for  the  Lesson. — Before  the  selec- 
tion is  read  by  the  children  a  threefold  preparation 
may  be  necessary  to  insure  its  welcome  reception. 

i.  The  Technical  or  Formal  Preparation. — Pre- 
paratory phonic  drill:  The  first  endeavor  of  the 
teacher  must  be  to  remove  all  unnecessary  difficulties. 
On  reading  the  selection,  she  feels  certain  that  the 
words,  cataract,  drought,  descend,  and  emancipation, 
which  occur  in  the  text,  will  be  pronounced  by  the 
children.  A  phonic  drill  is  therefore  devised  to  fore- 
stall these  errors.  The  children  are  asked  to  read  cat, 
<vr,  act,  as  syllables,  and  then  as  rapidly  as  the  pointer 
indicates,  until  the  sound  of  the  word  cataract  becomes 
familiar.  The  'bough  of  a  tree  is  now  written  on  the 
board,  and  the  word  bough,  which  is  known  to  all,  is 
selected.  The  teacher  erases  the  b,  and  calls  for  the 
remaining  sound  ough;  she  now  prefixes  dr,  and  the 
children  read  drough;  when  the  t  is  added,  no  child 
experiences  any  difficulty  in  pronouncing  the  word 
correctly.  Emancipation,  which  looks  formidable,  is 
likewise  syllabicated,  and  thus  rendered  simple. 

The  values  of  these  phonic  drills  are  many:  (i) 
Children  learn  how  to  attack  new  words;  (2)  enuncia- 
tion and  articulation  are  improved;  (3)  the  ear  is 
made  sensitive  to  correct  sound  ;(4)  phonograms  are 
constantly  reviewed;  (5)  the  children  acquire  confi- 


TEACHING   CHILDREN  TO  I^EAD 

dence;  (6)  the  occurrence  of  mispronunciations  is  re- 
duced materially.  The  last  gain  is  very  significant. 
A  child  who  never  heard  the  word  "drought"  is  ready 
to  accept  any  one  of  a  number  of  possible  sounds.  The 
correct  pronunciation  is  no  more  attractive  than  th€ 
incorrect  ones.  If  these  mispronunciations  are  not 
forestalled  by  a  phonic  drill,  the  class  hears  one  of  its 
members  mispronounce  the  word.  The  teacher  then 
corrects  the  erring  child,  and  gives  the  correct  pronun- 
ciation. At  the  end  of  the  period  some  children  waver 
between  the  two  pronunciations  that  were  heard ;  some 
remember  only  the  incorrect  one,  and  only  a  few  re- 
member the  correct  one.  If  the  only  pronunciation 
that  the  children  hear  is  the  correct  one,  this  confu- 
sion of  auditory  impressions  is  obviated. 

The  meaning  of  new  words:  A  second  but  dis- 
puted element  in  the  technical  preparation  in  reading 
is  the  study  of  new  words.  Some  insist  that  all  neces- 
sary new  words  should  be  explained  before  the  actual 
reading  is  begun,  in  order  (a)  to  insure  thoughtful 
comprehension  of  the  text,  (b)  to  inspire  a  feeling  of 
confidence  in  the  child,  and  (c)  to  secure  improved 
expressional  reading  which  results  from  proper  under- 
standing. Because  of  these  reasons,  these  teachers 
therefore  favor  a  "Meaning  and  Use"  period  before 
every  reading  lesson. 

But  experience  teaches,  others  argue,  (a)  that  com- 
prehension is  not  guaranteed  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
meaning  of  every  word  in  the  text.  The  underlying 
thought  is  deeper  than  the  sum  total  of  the  component 

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READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

words  or  phrases,  (b)  True  meaning  is  determined 
by  context,  hence  words  unknown  in  a  list  are  rich  in 
meaning  when  seen  in  natural  associations,  (c)  The 
meaning  finally  derived  in  this  analytical  manner  is 
more  lasting  than  a  mere  formal  definition,  (d)  What 
motive  will  the  children  feel  for  mastering  a  list  of 
words,  unless  they  see  the  context  first  and  realize  that 
comprehension  of  the  matter  is  dependent  upon  com- 
prehension of  the  words  ? 

Both  groups  of  teachers  take  extreme  attitudes.  It 
is  undoubtedly  wise  to  let  children  learn  to  subordinate 
a  word  to  the  underlying  thought  and  to  derive  the 
meaning  of  a  given  word  from  its  context.  But  when 
the  meaning  of  an  entire  sentence  or  paragraph  is  ab- 
solutely dependent  upon  a  few  words  or  a  phrase,  it  is 
equally  unwise  to  proceed  with  the  context  which  is 
certain  to  stir  no  thought  in  children's  minds.  The 
teacher's  personal  judgment,  and  not  devices  of  meth- 
od, must  dictate  procedure  in  specific  instructional 
situations. 

2.  The  Intellectual  Preparation. — It  is  evident  that 
before  any  selection  is  read,  those  facts  which  concern 
the  time,  the  place,  and  the  cause  of  the  incident  must 
be  given  or  found.  In  the  story  of  "Atalanta's  Race," 
the  teacher  will  either  have  to  tell  the  children,  or  lead 
them  to  find  out  for  themselves  what  an  important 
place  athletics  occupied  in  the  life  of  the  ancient 
Greeks.  But  the  intellectual  preparation  must  be  short, 
direct  to  the  point,  and  take  up  an  inappreciable  part 
of  the  reading  period..  Only  those  facts  should  be 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

brought  out  which  will  help  comprehension  and  arouse 
interest  in  the  content. 

3.  The  Emotional  Preparation. — -But  almost  all  of 
the  poetic  and  most  of  the  prose  selections  to  be  read 
make  an  emotional  as  well  as  an  intellectual  appeal. 
Since  emotions,  like  ideas,  are  interpreted  in  terms  of 
kindred  experiences,  it  is  necessary  to  make  children 
emotionally  receptive  for  the  emotional  appeal  of 
what  is  to  be  read. 

How  can  this  emotional  preparation  be  given  ?  The 
simplest  means  is  through  pictures.  If  the  lesson  is 
descriptive  of  natural  scenery,  a  picture  of  a  beautiful 
landscape  may  serve  to  put  the  child  into  an  apprecia- 
tive attitude.  The  feelings  of  sympathy  and  charity, 
which  should  be  in  every  child's  breast  as  the  "Poor 
Little  Match  Girl"  is  begun,  can  be  stirred  by  a  picture 
of  the  unfortunate  little  peddler.  An  appropriately  se- 
lected picture  can  always  arouse  the  emotion  that 
should  predominate  in  the  reading  lesson. 

A  second  means  of  giving  an  emotional  preparation 
is  to  place  the  child  in  the  midst  of  the  most  character- 
istic situation  of  the  story  and  let  him  live  through 
the  inevitable  joys  or  sorrows.  Before  beginning  the 
"Children's  Hour,"  let  the  pupils  imagine  themselves 
when  their  own  fathers  come  home.  A  few  chil- 
dren are  then  called  upon  to  tell  what  happens  in 
their  homes  at  this  hour.  How  do  their  brothers  and 
sisters  express  their  joy  at  the  expected  arrival?  What 
signs  give  evidence  of  their  father's  eagerness  to  be 
with  them?  If  the  lesson  tells  of  the  conspiracy  on 

132 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

board  Columbus's  ship,  the  teacher  is  anxious  to  stir 
in  each  child  an  admiration  for  the  bravery  and  the 
unflinching  determination  of  the  discoverer.  Let  them 
imagine  themselves  in  Columbus's  place,  overhearing 
the  mutiny  and  the  dire  end  planned  for  him,  and  then 
let  them  decide  whether  they  personally  would  have 
decided  to  continue  or  have  granted  the  sailors'  de- 
mands. The  same  procedure  was  used  with  excellent 
results  in  "Excelsior."  A  series  of  review  questions 
elicited  from  the  children  the  topography  of  Switzer- 
land and  the  severity  of  the  snowstorms.  With  this 
picture  in  their  minds,  they  were  asked,  "What  dan- 
gers might  befall  you,  if  you  started  out  on  a  journey 
just  as  such  a  storm  was  breaking  out?"  As  the  chil- 
dren saw  themselves  in  the  grip  of  Nature's  fury, 
they  suggested,  "I  might  lose  my  way,"  "I  might  be 
buried  in  the  snow,"  "I  might  be  frozen  to  death,"  etc. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  tragic  possibilities  offered 
by  a  sixth-year  class.  While  the  children's  imagina- 
tions were  conjuring  up  added  terrors  of  this  situa- 
tion, the  teacher  said,  "Let  us  see  what  befell  the  boy 
in  Longfellow's  story."  The  children  began  the  poem 
with  hearts  that  beat  with  sympathy  for  the  hero  of 
"Excelsior."  If  the  reading  selection  has  an  emo- 
tional message  every  effort  must  be  made  to  put 
the  children  in  the  most  sympathetic  attitude  toward 
it. 

A  third  suggestion  for  giving  an  emotional  prepara- 
tion counsels  that  we  forestall  any  improper  senti- 
ment or  any  possible  vulgar  interpretation  that  chil- 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

dren  may  evolve.  A  little  classroom  experience  en- 
ables teachers  to  foretell  what  parts  of  a  selection  to 
omit,  what  incidents  to  pass  over,  and  what  expres- 
sions to  guard  against.  In  a  seventh-year  class  "The 
Song  of  the  Chattahoochee"  roused  almost  continuous 
mirth.  The  beauty  of  the  pictures,  the  richness  of  the 
symbolism,  the  vividness  of  the  moral  lesson,  the  charm 
of  the  music — all  these  were  lost  because  "Chatta- 
hoochee" sounded  suggestive  to  ears  accustomed  to 
the  slang  of  the  street.  After  the  intellectual  and  the 
emotional  preparation,  but  before  the  poem  is  read, 
the  teacher  should  tell  the  class  "But  this  river  that  is 
made  so  real  by  the  poet  has  a  peculiar  name,  an  old 
Indian  name,  'Chattahoochee.' '  Many  children  will 
undoubtedly  smile,  but,  when  the  name  comes  up  in  the 
actual  reading  it  is  not  new,  and  does  not  endanger 
the  dignity  of  the  poet's  message. 

Many  a  class  has  lost  the  force  and  the  grandeur 
of  the  simple  appeal  for  democracy  in  Burns'  "A 
Man's  a  Man  for  A'  That,"  by  the  coarse  interpreta- 
tion of  the  line,  "The  rank  is  but  the  guinea's  stamp." 
The  vulgar  slang  of  the  street,  rather  than  the  poet's 
gospel,  was  uppermost  in  consciousness.  How  can 
we  guard  against  such  regrettable  occurrences?  A 
simple  preparation  may  be  of  service.  Ask  the  class, 
"What  is  meant  by  'the  dollar  is  not  the  stamp  of  char- 
acter'?" "How  would  an  English  child  say  this  sen- 
tence?" The  usual  answer  which  the  children  give  is, 
"The  pound  (  £  )  is  not  the  stamp  of  character." 
"How  would  the  same  English  child  say  this,  if  he 

134 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

thought  of  the  next  higher  denomination?"  A  titter 
pervades  the  class,  but  all  the  humor  which  the  word 
can  provoke  is  expended  and  the  line  in  question  is 
read  with  the  dignity  that  it  merits.  The  experienced 
teacher  realizes  that  these  are  not  isolated  examples, 
but  rather  that  they  are  typical  of  a  host  of  instances  in 
the  day's  work. 

Possible  Procedures  in  a  Beading  Lewon. — In  general, 
the  procedure  in  the  reading  recitation  is  governed  by 
the  aim  that  the  teacher  selects  for  the  lesson.  Among 
the  important  forms  which  the  reading  lesson  may 
take  are  found  the  following: 

1.  The  lesson  may  be  read  by  the  teacher  as  a  model 

of  articulation,  enunciation  and  expression. 

2.  The  lesson  may  be  read  aloud  by  various  pupils 

and  their  renditions  discussed  and  criticized  by 
their  classmates. 

3.  The  lesson  may  be  read  silently  by  all  the  chil- 

dren preparatory  to  having  its  contents  repro- 
duced, discussed,  and  used  for  oral  composi- 
tion, or  its  new  words  and  allusions  explained, 
etc. 

4.  The  lesson  may  be  read  silently  by  the  entire 

class,  and  then  used  for  comparison  with  selec- 
tions previously  read  and  studied. 

5.  The  lesson  may  be  read  by  the  teacher  to  the 

class  or  by  the  class  itself,  merely  as  a  basis  for 
a  discussion  of  a  moral  issue  that  is  involved. 

6.  The  lesson  may  be  read  aloud  by  children,  be- 

135 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

cause  it  affords   excellent   means   of   teaching: 
children  to  dramatize  in  reading. 

These  forms  of  reading  lessons  are  not  mutually 
exclusive,  but  can  be  combined  to  give  the  recitation 
a  more  composite  organization.  Any  one  of  these 
procedures,  or  any  combination  of  these,  may  be  used, 
provided  the  teacher  is  governed  by  consciously  se- 
lected aims. 

The  Procedure  of  an  Intensive  Beading  Lesson — It  re- 
mains for  us  to  set  forth  the  detailed  organization  of 
an  intensive  reading  lesson  that  seeks  to  make  reading 
a  thought  process,  to  develop  a  literary  sense,  and  to 
help  children  toward  accurate  speech.  In  mere  out- 
line the  steps  in  this  intensive  organization  are: 

1.  Reading  the  Selection  as  a  Whole. 

2.  Silent  Reading. 

3.  Oral  Reading. 

4.  Correction  and  Criticism  of  Children's  Reading. 

5.  Elaboration. 

6.  Oral  Composition. 

7.  Comparison  and  Generalization. 

8.  Final  Review  and  Summary. 

These  are  the  steps  of  a  composite  lesson;  some  of 
them  may  therefore  be  combined  or  omitted,  accord- 
ing to  the  specific  aim  or  aims  that  the  teacher  seeks  to 
realize. 

i.  Reading  the  Selection  as  a  Whole. — Assuming 
that  the  preparation  has  been  given,  the  next  question 

136 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

is,  "Shall  the  selection  be  read  as  a  whole  by  the  chil- 
dren at  home,  or  by  the  teacher  to  the  class?"  No 
actual  law  can  be  posited.  But,  in  the  main,  it  may 
be  said  that  all  poetical  selections  should  be  read  to  the 
class  by  the  teacher  before  the  detailed  study  is  begun. 
This  oral  rendition  gives  the  children  the  rhythm,  the 
atmosphere  and  even,  perhaps,  the  message  of  the 
poet.  The  analytical  study  of  each  stanza  gains  im- 
measurably in  appreciative  power  because  of  the  teach- 
er's reading.  But,  in  the  average  prose  selection,  the 
dominant  interest  for  children  is  the  content;  if  it  is 
read  at  home  by  the  pupils  or  in  class  by  the  teacher, 
this  story  interest  is  satisfied,  and  there  is  no  other 
motive  that  will  gain  for  it  the  necessary  attention. 
This  does  not  mean  that  home  reading  should  not  be 
encouraged.  It  simply  advises  against  the  assignment 
of  home  lessons  in  reading  in  these  intermediary 
grades.  Every  inducement  should  be  given  children  to 
join  the  library  and  read  extensively  in  their  hours  of 
leisure. 

2.  Silent  Reading. — The  selection  or  a  logical  part 
of  it  may  now  be  assigned  for  silent  reading.  Children 
in  lower  grades  may  be  asked  to  read  rapidly  and 
silently  a  paragraph  or  a  stanza  at  a  time;  in  higher 
grades,  the  selection  may  be  broken  into  logical  divi- 
sions, and  each  assigned  for  silent  reading;  in  the 
highest  grades  the  selection  as  a  whole  may  be  given 
in  a  single  assignment. 

In  making  an  assignment  for  silent  reading,  a  time 
limit  should  be  set.  The  children  should  be  told  to 

137 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

read  the  next  stanza,  or,  the  paragraphs  describing  a 
given  scene  and  be  ready  to  state  the  essential  ideas  at 
the  end  of  a  certain  number  of  minutes.  When  the 
time  limit  is  reached,  the  signal  should  be  given  and 
all  eyes  should  be  raised  from  the  books.  Children 
should  then  be  called  on  promiscuously  to  tell  what 
they  gleaned  in  the  rapid,  silent  perusal  of  the  allotted 
portion.  Through  explanations,  marks,  and  praise, 
children  should  be  led  to  feel  that  this  silent  reading 
is  as  important  as  the  much  emphasized  oral  rendi- 
tions. G.  Stanley  Hall  tells  us :  "Till  children  take 
pleasure  in  silent,  cursive,  passive  reading  of  good 
literature,  touching  but  not  pressing  the  keys,  learning 
the  great  task  of  catching  the  meaning  of  others' 
minds  undistorted,  the  responsibility  of  the  school  does 
not  entirely  cease." 

This  silent  reading,  under  pressure  of  limited  time, 
if  made  a  regular  part  of  every  reading  lesson,  brings 
advantages  that  are  far-reaching  and  permanent,  (a) 
It  develops  the  art  of  concentration,  (b)  It  trains  the 
^ye  to  be  an  efficient  tool  in  thought-getting,  by  subor- 
dinating words  and  symbols  to  sentences,  (c)  It  in- 
sures a  thought  basis  for  oral  reading,  (d)  It  guar- 
antees better  oral  reading,  for  good  expression  is 
prompted  by  comprehension;  he  who  seeks  to  read 
aloud  well  must  constantly  think  of  what,  not  how,  to 
read.  In  a  word,  silent  reading  seeks  to  make  reading 
a  process  of  thinking.  Miss  Laing,  in  her  excellent 
manual,  tells  us,  "Conducting  a  reading  lesson  is  con- 
ducting, controlling,  shaping  ...  a  process  of  think- 

138 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

ing  in  the  mind  of  each  individual  in  the  class.  .  .  . 
The  author  of  the  selection  is  in  control  of  the  think- 
ing process.  .  .  .  The  teacher's  value  is  measured  by 
her  power  in  helping  forward  this  thinking  process." 

3.  Oral  Reading, — The  student  of  methodology  in 
reading  finds  that  current  pedagogical  thought  seeks 
almost  unanimously  to  discourage  oral  reading.  "We 
have  too  much  of  this  to-day/'  Huey  tells  us.  Miss 
Laing  adds,  "Oral  reading  should  be  introduced  as  a 
single  phase  of  reading  work,  L  e.,  as  a  means  of  self- 
expression."  Hughes  would  make  oral  reading  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule. 

The  case  against  oral  reading:  The  arguments  of 
the  opponents  of  oral  reading  reduce  themselves  to 
three :  (a)  Oral  reading  tends  to  undermine  reading 
for  thought.  The  child  is  made  conscious  of  every 
word,  of  every  punctuation  mark,  of  every  intonation 
of  voice,  of  every  enunciation,  until  his  whole  mind  is 
monopolized  by  the  symbols  rather  than  the  thought 
they  represent.  The  habit  of  slow  reading  and  of  word 
consciousness  makes  impossible  the  development  of 
habits  of  rapid,  silent,  thoughtful  reading  necessary  in 
all  later  life,  (b)  Oral  reading  makes  the  child  self- 
conscious  of  his  limitations  of  speech,  and  thus  fur- 
ther occupies  the  mind  with  symbols  and  their  utter- 
ance, rather  than  with  thought,  (c)  In  all  oral  read- 
ing there  is  serious  loss  of  time  to  all  children  who 
merely  listen  and  who  are  forbidden  to  read  faster 
than  their  classmate  who  reads  to  them. 

The  case  for  oral  reading:  On  the  assumption  that 
139 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

silent  reading  is  entirely  eliminated  and  oral  reading  is 
the  exclusive  form  of  reading  used  in  the  classroom, 
the  arguments  listed  above  are  true  in  all  that  they 
state  and  even  imply.  But  such  a  perverted  emphasis 
on  oral  reading  is  most  unusual. 

Despite  the  inestimable  advantages  of  silent  reading, 
oral  reading  must  occupy  a  coordinate  position 
with  it  in  class  teaching  for  many  reasons,  (a)  The 
teacher  must  test  the  child's  knowledge  of  the 
symbols.  In  rapid,  silent  thought  reading  the 
child  gives  no  evidence  of  what  symbols  he  does  not 
know,  (b)  Oral  reading  is  a  test  of  the  thought  ac- 
quired. By  the  voice  and  intonation  the  teacher  knows 
that  the  child  has  the  author's  idea,  (c)  Clearness 
and  accuracy  of  articulation  and  enunciation  and  cor- 
rect use  of  voice  are  desiderata  in  all  oral  speech.  It 
is  in  oral  reading  that  the  child's  limitations  in  these 
speech  elements  are  noted  and  appropriate  drills 
planned  for  the  following  phonic  lessons,  (d)  Words 
and  phrases  have  their  own  worth.  They  add  to 
every  pupil's  expressional  and  interpretational  vocabu- 
lary. In  silent  reading  words  and  phrases  may  be  lost 
in  the  search  for  the  underlying  thought;  in  the  oral 
reading  words  and  expressions  are  given  their  true 
worth,  (e)  But  even  from  the  point  of  view  of 
thought  and  artistic  appreciation  oral  reading  must  be 
given  almost  equal  rank  with  silent  reading  in  school. 
The  dignity,  the  force,  the  cadence  and  the  music  in 
literary  language  can  better  be  felt  in  oral  than  in 
silent  reading.  If  the  reader  is  in  doubt,  let  him  study 

140 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

the  results  of  the  two  forms  of  reading  when  applied 
either  to  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  address  or  to  the  "Song 
of  the  Chattahoochee" : 

Out  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Down  the  valleys  of  Hall, 
I  hurry  amain  to  reach  the  plain, 

Run  the  rapid  and  leap  the  fall, 
Split  at  the  rock  and  together  again, 

Accept  my  bed,  or  narrow  or  wide, 
And  flee  from  folly  on  every  side 

With  a  lover's  pain  to  attain  the  plain 
Far  from  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Far  from  the  valleys  of  HalL 

Suggestions  for  procedure  in  oral  reading: 
a.  Consciousness  of  an  Audience.  The  oral  reading 
would  gain  much  in  its  appeal  if  the  children  were 
made  to  feel  that  they  have  an  actual  audience  to  whom 
they  are  telling  something  entertaining  or  instructive. 
The  child  who  reads  should  face  the  class  for  the  spirit 
which  comes  from  the  sight  of  expectant  faces.  Every 
speaker  knows  that  the  audience  contributes  as  much 
to  the  effectiveness  of  his  address  as  does  his  subject. 
Give  the  child,  in  a  smaller  way,  the  thrill  of  an  audi- 
ence. The  children  in  their  seats  should  often  be  re- 
quired to  shut  their  books  and  learn  to  listen  atten- 
tively. In  upper  grades  children  should  be  allowed  to 
select  their  own  material  for  oral  reading.  That  selec- 
tion which  appeals  most  to  a  child  he  should  be  permit- 
ted to  read  to  his  classmates.  If  the  selection  is  long, 

141 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

two  or  three  children  who  like  it  may  divide  it  up 
among  them  and  each  read  his  allotted  share.  No 
effective  and  convincing  rendition  is  possible  when  a 
child  sees  the  backs  of  his  classmates'  heads  and  is 
conscious  that  he  is  reading,  not  because  he  has  some- 
thing to  say,  but  merely  because  his  turn  has  come  in 
the  course  of  the  teacher's  endeavor  to  form  an  esti- 
mate of  the  pupil's  reading  ability. 

b.  No  Interruptions.    It  is  imperative  that  the  child 
who  reads  should  not  be  stopped  to  correct  every  error 
he  commits.    These  repeated  interruptions  make  read- 
ing for  thought  impossible,  and  cause  a  self-conscious- 
ness which  renders  every  succeeding  phrase  more  diffi- 
cult to  read.     All  corrections  should  be  reserved  for 
the  end  of  the  child's  assignment.    If  the  pupil's  read- 
ing is  very  poor,  he  may  be  stopped, — for  the  benefit 
of  the  rest  of  the  class, — in  the  middle  of  the  para- 
graph or  stanza ;  this  is  not  an  interruption,  but  a  cur- 
tailment of  the  assignment 

c.  Teacher  Not  to  Follow  in  the  Book.  The  teach- 
er who  desires  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  a  child's 
clearness  and  accuracy  of  speech  will  find  it  advisable 
to  rely  solely  on  the  auditory  impressions.    When  she 
follows  the  child  in  her  own  book  the  visual  impres- 
sions automatically  arouse  their  auditory  images  and 
the  teacher's  ear  is  adjusted  for  the  correct  sound. 
Reading  that  she  judged  clear  and  accurate  while  she 
followed  the  printed  page  might  become  indistinct  and 
inaccurate  when  the  book  is  laid  aside.    Practical  ex- 
periences give  evidence  of  this  fact. 

142 


READING   IN    THE   INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

d.  The  Social  Spirit  Must  Prevail.  Unless  the  mo- 
tives which  prompt  speech  in  real  social  intercourse 
are  present  during  oral  reading,  most  of  the  children's 
renditions  will  lack  enthusiasm  and  sincerity.  The 
initial  suggestions,  viz.,  that  each  child  should  feel  that 
he  has  an  audience,  that  he  is  reading  something  worth 
telling  others,  that  the  class  should  occasionally  listen 
with  closed  books,  that  children  be  allowed  to  choose 
the  selection  that  they  would  like  to  read  to  their  class- 
mates— all  these  sought  to  offer  means  of  promoting 
the  social  spirit  in  oral  reading.  In  many  classes  ex- 
cellent bulletin  boards  are  maintained  in  connection 
with  geography  and  history  by  encouraging  children 
to  search  for  appropriate  clippings  and  articles  in 
newspapers  and  magazines.  Once  a  week  the  best  of 
these  articles  should  be  read  to  the  class  by  the  chil- 
dren who  found  them.  This  is  oral  reading,  but  the 
motive  of  real  life  is  preserved  in  the  classroom.  The 
shorter  selections  in  the  readers  should  be  given  out 
to  children  who  will  feel  their  responsibility  for  the 
best  oral  rendition  of  these;  the  best  compositions  of 
each  week,  good  answers  in  written  tests,  and  intelli- 
gent results  of  assigned  reference  reading  should  be 
read  orally  to  the  class  by  their  respective  authors. 
These  suggestions  may  serve  to  show  the  teacher  how 
varied  and  plentiful  are  the  devices  for  preserving  the 
social  spirit  in  all  oral  reading. 

How  to  judge  oral  reading:  What  qualities  shall 
the  teacher  seek  in  the  children's  oral  reading?  The 
simplicity  of  the  standard  suggested  is  explained  by 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

the  fact  that  it  is  designed  only  for  the  elementary 
school. 

1.  Voice:  Loud  and  of  Proper  Pitch. 

("Articulation. 

2.  Clearness-^  Enunciation. 

I  Pronunciation. 

3.  Expression. 

The  Voice.  It  is  evident  that  the  reading  must  be 
loud  enough  for  all  to  hear.  During  the  oral  reading 
one  constantly  hears  the  teacher  urging  "Louder," 
"Louder"  as  each  child  in  muffled  tones  runs  through 
the  allotted  paragraph.  Much  of  this  inaudible  read- 
ing is  caused  by  the  feeling  in  each  child  that  he  is 
reading  for  the  teacher.  When  the  teacher  approaches 
the  child  who  is  reciting  the  tone  is  lowered ;  when  the 
teacher  walks  in  the  opposite  direction  the  volume  of 
voice  is  unconsciously  increased.  Give  the  child  an 
audience  and  inspire  in  him  the  belief  that  he  is  read- 
ing something  worth  his  classmates'  attention  and  in 
most  cases  the  voice  is  regulated  so  that  it  reaches  the 
pupils  in  the  last  row. 

There  is  danger,  as  a  result  of  constant  demands  for 
"louder  reading,"  that  the  voice  will  be  pitched  too 
high  and  become  noisy,  strained  or  harsh.  With  such 
children  improvement  can  be  achieved  ( i )  by  inviting 
imitation  of  the  well-modulated  voice  of  the  teacher 
or  of  other  children,  (2)  by  frequent  breathing  drills, 
and  (3)  by  plenty  of  singing  exercises  involving 

144 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

"octave  twists."  Detailed  suggestions  will  be  found 
in  such  books  as  are  listed  in  the  bibliography  at  the 
end  of  the  chapter  on  "Phonics." 

Clearness.  When  reading  lacks  clearness  the  fault 
may  be  found,  first,  in  the  child's  articulation.  The 
term  "articulation"  has  reference  to  the  joining  of 
sounds  or  syllables  into  words.  (Artus,  a  joint.) 
The  common  errors  of  articulation  may  be  grouped 
tinder  three  heads : 

(a)  Errors  of  Omission:  histr'y,  pome    (poem), 
government,  singin',  etc. 

(b)  Errors  of  Insertion:   coste'd,  hurte'd. 

(c)  Error  of  Slurring  Final  Letters  of  Words  in 
Sentences :    He  wen'  away.    He  an'  I  were  there.    In 
sounding  words  in  a  list  the  child  would  probably  say 
went,  and,  but  when  these  words  are  used  in  sentences, 
final  t  and  d  are  slurred. 

The  term  "enunciation"  has  reference  to  the  utter- 
ance of  sounds,  usually  consonant  sounds.  Thus,  the 
person  who  says  kingk,  vhich,  wery,  becau(sss)e,  etc., 
is  not  enunciating  these  sounds  according  to  the  stand- 
ards of  the  English  language. 

"Pronunciation"  is  a  more  general  term  and  refers 
to  correct  articulation,  proper  enunciation,  the  correct 
placing  of  the  accent  and  the  cadence  of  the  language. 
The  Frenchman  whose  articulation  and  enunciation  in 
the  word  difficulty  are  correct  is  nevertheless  not  pro- 
nouncing the  word  correctly  for  he  reads  it  difficulty. 
So,  too,  the  music  which  is  characteristic  of  his  native 
tongue  he  carries  over  to  the  English  and  loses  the 

145 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO  READ 

cadence  and  the  intonations  that  make  the  music  of  our 
language. 

The  methods  of  correcting  faulty  articulations, 
enunciations,  and  pronunciations  are  explained  and 
illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  "Phonics."  The  reader 
is  therefore  referred  to  the  appropriate  headings  in 
Chapter  VIII. 

Expression.  By  expression  in  reading  is  meant  the 
oral  utterance  of  a  thought  in  a  manner  which  conveys 
the  meaning,  suggests  the  imagery  and  stirs  the  emo- 
tions intended  by  the  author.  Proper  expression  is 
therefore  a  composite  result,  including  changing  pitch, 
voice  control,  speed,  rhythm,  emphasis,  pauses,  and 
accuracy  of  pronunciation.  We  shall  not  consider 
"expression"  from  this  complex  viewpoint,  but  take  it 
merely  as  it  was  defined — the  quality  in  reading  which 
conveys  to  the  auditor  the  meaning,  the  imagery,  and 
the  emotions  of  another. 

The  teacher  of  elementary  grades  is  interested  in 
the  practical  problem,  "How  can  we  train  children  for 
better  expression  in  reading?"  The  suggestions  for 
attaining  this  end  follows : 

a.  Know  the  thought.  Consciousness  is  more  mo- 
tor than  mental.  Every  changing  idea,  every  transi- 
tory emotion,  works  itself  out  in  some  physical  form. 
If  the  child  knows  the  content  and  has  caught  its 
meaning  he  is  assured  of  the  first  factor  that  makes 
for  expression.  The  teacher  can  now  see  the  value  of 
the  intellectual  preparation  before  the  reading,  of  using 
the  text  for  oral  composition  and  of  preceding  oral 

146 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

reading  by  silent  reading ;  these  are  only  means  to  a 
higher  end — the  acquisition  and  comprehension  of  the 
thought. 

b.  Develop    self-expression.      A    current     fallacy 
holds  that  expressional  ability  is  developed  by  inces- 
sant practice  in  expressing  the  ideas  of  others.     If  a 
knowledge  of  the  thought  is  the  first  condition  for  ex- 
pression, we  can  readily  see  that  only  as  we  insist  on 
natural  and  expressive  speech  in  all  oral  language  and 
in  every  recitation  are  we  training  children  for  better 
expression  in  formal  oral  reading. 

c.  Feel  the  situation.     But  mere  comprehension  is 
not  enough  in  an  emotional  situation.    The  child  must 
be  made  part  of  circumstance;  he  must  lose  himself  in 
the  fortunes  and  vicissitudes  of  the  characters  if  he  is 
to  arouse  the  dominant  feeling  of  the  author  in  others. 
Children  are  naturally  expressive.    Listen  to  the  spir- 
ited description  that  the  little  girl  gives  her  friend  of 
a  new  dress  or  the  animated  narrative  of  the  lad  who 
saw  an  athletic  game!    In  the  classroom  this  natural 
enthusiasm,  this  native  expressiveness,  are  lost  because 
children  are  made  self-conscious. 

How  can  children  be  kept  less  self-conscious  and 
more  imaginative  in  the  formal  lesson?  The  first 
means  is  through  skillful  emotional  preparations. 
These  were  described  in  detail  and  must  therefore  be 
dismissed  here  with  a  mere  mention.  A  second  effec- 
tive means  is  through  dramatizations.  Let  children  act 
every  appropriate  situation.  If  the  reading  selection  is 
a  dialogue  let  two  children  impersonate  the  two  char- 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

acters.  In  the  sentence,  "Rather  startled,  he  hesitat- 
ingly asked,  'Why  did  you  send  for  me?'  "  a  smooth 
and  rapid  reading  should  not  be  accepted.  The  child 
must  read  the  question  as  it  was  asked  by  the  startled 
character.  When  the  child  reads  "The  portly  little 
Dutchman  waddled  along,  puffing  slowly  and  regularly 
at  his  pipe,"  ask  him  to  execute  the  actions  portrayed. 
If  the  paragraph  contains,  "With  puzzled  expression 
the  old  man  replied,  'I  hardly  know  why  these  ships 
are  in  port/  "  the  teacher  must  reject  the  rendition 
given  with  a  confident  air.  Let  the  child  assume  the 
thinking  attitude  and  the  knit  brow  and  his  reading 
is  now  slow,  thoughtful,  and  uncertain  in  tone.  If 
these  dramatizations  are  begun  early  and  used  regu- 
larly the  children  will  gain  facility  in  these  renditions 
and  retain  their  natural  expressiveness  in  these  class- 
room readings. 

d.  Encourage  a  social  spirit  in  all  reading  les- 
sons. In  this  chapter  we  took  occasion  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  no  spirited  and  sincere  rendition  of  the 
text  is  possible  if  children  read  merely  because  they 
have  been  so  ordered  by  their  teacher  who  stands  in 
judgment  over  them.  Unless  the  child  who  reads  to 
his  classmates  is  actuated  by  a  desire  to  communicate 
to  them  something  that  he  knows  they  are  anxious  to 
hear,  no  expressive  reading  can  be  hoped  for.  Read- 
ing must  never  become  a  perfunctory  exercise.  The 
suggestions  for  fostering  this  social  spirit  are  enume- 
rated in  detail  in  the  previous  treatment  of  this  topic.1 

1  See  pages  141-2,  143  . 

148 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 


e.  Remove    formal   difficulties.      Unless   the   child 
can  give  himself  exclusively  to  the  thought  and  the 
interpretation  of  the  text  expressive  reading  must  suf- 
fer.    It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  formal  preparation 
was  suggested  so  that  new  and  difficult  words  will  not 
be  encountered  without  a  previous  drill.     From  the 
very  beginning  children  must  read  in  sentences  and 
make  thought  focal. 

f.  Imitation   of   the   teacher   develops    expressive- 
ness in  children.    The  trite  pedagogical  maxim,  "Lan- 
guage is  an  imitative  acquisition,"  suggests  the  impor- 
tant part  that  the  teacher's  speech  plays  in  developing 
correct    expression.      The    teacher    whose    voice    is 
not  well  modulated,  and  whose  speech  is  not  well 
phrased,  can  hope  to  accomplish  little  in  the  improve- 
ment of  expression  in  reading.    No  matter  how  real  is 
the  social  spirit  of  the  lesson  or  how  intensely  the  chil- 
dren feel  the  situation,  the  drab  tone  and  the  monotony 
of  the  teacher's  voice  will  be  imitated  and  all  reading 
will  fall  into  a  perfunctory  routine. 

4.  Correction  of  the  Child's  Reading. — After  a 
child  has  read  orally  he  must  receive  corrections  and 
constructive  criticism.  Before  the  teacher  offers  these 
the  class  must  be  given  an  opportunity  to  express  its 
judgment.  For  this  reason  the  outline  of  qualifica- 
tions of  good  reading,  that  was  suggested,  must  be  kept 
in  view  of  the  children  so  that  they  know  along  what 
lines  to  criticize.  The  child  who  reads  should  be  asked 
if  he  can  correct  his  rendition.  A  child  should  be 
saved  from  criticism  if  he  knows  his  own  errors.  His 

149 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

classmates  should  then  be  called  upon  to  offer  correcs 
tions  and  criticisms  both  favorable  and  unfavorable, 
One  of  the  best  means  of  keeping  the  class  intent  on 
the  paragraph  that  is  being  read  is  to  make  each  child 
feel  that  he  may  be  called  upon  to  correct  his  class- 
mate. Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  a  spirit  of  prig- 
gishness,  and  of  unjust  criticism,  and  to  allow  the  child 
who  is  criticized  an  opportunity  to  answer  his  critics. 

When  this  reaction  has  been  achieved  by  the  class 
the  teacher  offers  the  necessary  corrections  and  makes 
such  criticism  as  is  deemed  helpful.  But  only  on  the 
rarest  occasions  should  the  child  be  called  upon  to  re- 
read his  assignment.  If  the  pupil  next  to  be  called  on 
is  a  poor  reader  or  has  a  speech  defect,  the  teacher 
should  read  the  paragraph  first  so  that  the  exception- 
ally poor  reader  has  a  good  model  to  imitate.  It  is 
wise,  also,  to  have  such  children  read  privately  to  the 
teacher  in  order  to  save  them  from  any  possible  humil- 
iation or  ultra  self-consciousness,  and  the  rest  of  the 
class  from  listening  to  incorrect  speech. 

5.  The  Elaboration. — The  intensive  study  now  de- 
mands that  the  elements  of  literary  appreciation  be 
taken  up.  Words  whose  meanings  should  be  known, 
beauty  of  diction,  character  delineation,  plot  develop- 
ment, striking  figures,  moral  issues — these  should  be 
explained. 

But  a  word  of  caution  is  necessary  in  all  intensive 
study:  Beware  of  overintensiveness.  The  selection 
that  is  studied  must  not  drag;  it  must  move  forward 
and  keep  satisfying  the  child's  desire  for  new  situa- 

150 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

tions.  It  is  dangerous  to  stop  for  all  new  words,  for 
every  touch  of  beautiful  diction  or  character  portrayal. 
Every  teacher  must  prepare  her  lesson  with  a  discrim- 
inative sense  that  prompts  liberal  eliminations.  In  in- 
tensive literary  study  we  must  stop  only  at  those  posi- 
tive elements  that  promote  literary  insight  and  literary 
appreciation. 

A  second  word  of  caution  advises  against  a  common 
fault  of  directing  all  questions  pertaining  to  interpre- 
tation or  rhetorical  analysis  to  the  same  child  who  has 
read  orally.  Such  a  procedure  victimizes  one  child  and 
encourages  others  in  their  mental  wanderings.  All 
questions  designed  to  bring  to  the  surface  the  literary 
treasures  of  any  text  should  be  asked  of  the  entire 
class  and  children  should  be  called  upon  individually 
In  some  promiscuous  order.  Unless  the  self -activity 
of  each  child  is  properly  aroused  and  continuously  di- 
rected, the  elaboration  of  the  reading  text  becomes  fu- 
tile and  deadening. 

6.  Oral  Composition. — At  every  important  logical 
pause  in  the  selection  the  class  should  be  stopped  for  an 
informal  discussion  of  the  text  The  questions  should 
be  broad  and  liberal  and  designed  to  summarize,  to 
elicit  opinions,  and  to  provoke  judgments  on  the  in- 
stances of  the  selection.  The  endeavor  throughout 
should  be  to  encourage  spontaneous  and  enthusiastic 
expression.  If  children,  in  the  course  of  their  talk, 
glance  at  the  page  and  incorporate  such  words  and 
phrases  as  they  feel  will  express  their  meaning  best,  no 
condemnatory  remark  should  be  made.  A  child  who 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

does  this  has  already  acquired  such  an  appreciation  of 
the  worth  of  certain  verbal  elements  as  to  incorporate 
them  into  his  expressional  vocabulary.  Every  inten- 
sive reading  lesson  must  furnish  opportunity  for  rich 
and  interesting  oral  composition  and  must  make  its 
contribution  toward  the  child's  expressional  powers. 

7.  Comparisons  and  Generalizations. — After  hav- 
ing decided  on  the  appropriate  reading  matter  for  any 
given  part  of  the  term,  the  teacher  should  try  to  group 
the  individual  selections  in  such  a  way  that  interesting 
comparisons  will  result  from  having  similar  or  oppo- 
site themes  follow  in  succession.  If  the  "Children's 
Hour"  is  to  be  read  for  the  first  lesson  the  "First 
Snowfall"  should  be  selected  for  the  second.  In  the 
comparison  the  children  can  be  led  to  see  that  the 
theme,  parental  love,  is  the  same  in  both,  but  while  the 
one  is  written  in  a  major  key,  happy  and  buoyant,  the 
other  is  in  the  minor  key  and  reveals  the  plucking  at 
the  heartstrings  of  the  poor  father.  To  the  children 
such  a  comparison  makes  each  poem  richer  in  associa- 
tions, permanent  in  impression  and  deeper  in  apprecia- 
tion. An  examination  of  any  good  literary  reader  will 
reveal  a  host  of  opportunities  for  similar  comparisons 
that  allow  for  most  interesting  oral  composition. 

But  comparisons  bring  to  the  surface  not  only  dif- 
ferences but  underlying  likenesses  which  serve  as  the 
basis  of  all  generalization.  If  at  the  end  of  the  com- 
parison a  moral  principle  can  be  drawn,  or  a  useful 
generalization  elicited,  it  would  be  unwise  to  neglect 
it.  But  the  teacher  should  not  hesitate  to  omit  this 

152 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

step  if  she  feels  that  the  comparisons  will  be  forced  or 
that  the  selection  must  be  bled  for  a  moral. 

8.  Final  Review  and  Summary. — A  final  question, 
in  the  intensive  literary  study  concerns  itself  with  the 
re-reading  of  the  selection.  In  the  main,  prose  selec- 
tions should  not  be  re-read  because  their  main  interest 
for  the  children  is  their  content.  Much  more  can  be 
done  for  the  children  by  having  them  read  new  matter. 
But  with  a  poem  circumstances  differ.  There  the 
main  interest  lies  in  the  treatment  of  the  theme,  in  the 
language  and  the  rich  imagery.  After  an  analytical 
study  of  each  stanza  a  final  reading  of  the  whole  poem 
by  the  teacher  unifies  it  in  the  minds  of  the  children 
and  leaves  them  with  a  rich  and  rhythmic  impression 
of  the  poet's  message. 

The  final  review  of  the  content  of  any  selection, 
whether  prose  or  poetic,  can  be  made  interesting,  not 
by  exact  reproduction,  but  by  a  discussion  of  broad 
comparative  questions.  A  few  of  these  are  offered  by 
way  of  illustration: 

"Suggest  another  but  equally  appropriate  title  for 
this  story." 

"If  you  were  to  write  the  story  of  this  poem,  how 
many  paragraphs  would  you  make?'*  "What  would 
be  the  topic  of  each?" 

"What  stanza  in  this  poem  tells  most  about  X's 
character,  most  about  his  life?"  "Prove  your  answer 
by  comparing  it  with  others." 

"Who  in  to-day's  lesson  is  the  exact  opposite  of  A 
in  the  last  selection?"  "Contrast  the  two." 

153 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

"Point  out  three  striking  qualities  in  the  character 
of  B."  "Tell  what  he  does,  and  what  he  says  that 
show  these  traits." 

"Can  you  give  a  temptation  in  your  own  life  that  is 
parallel  to  the  temptation  felt  by  B  ?" 

Extensive  Reading  Lessons. — The  practical  teacher 
sees  at  once  serious  inherent  limitations  in  the  intensive 
reading  lessons  as  outlined  in  the  preceding  pages.  It 
is  obvious  that  too  limited  an  amount  would  be  covered 
in  the  time  allotted  to  reading,  and  consequently  too 
little  literature  would  be  read  in  the  school  course. 
The  degree  of  thoroughness  prescribed  would  enable 
a  teacher  to  call  on  too  few  children  in  any  one  period. 
In  a  class  of  forty  most  pupils  would  recite  only  once 
in  a  fortnight  The  limitations  of  intensive  reading1 
make  necessary  extensive  reading  lessons. 

Objects  of  Extensive  Reading. — There  are  two  ends 
that  must  be  served  in  extensive  reading,  (i)  more 
practice  in  reading  must  be  provided  for  the  children, 
and  (2)  a  familiarity  with  a  wide  field  of  literature 
must  be  given.  These  two  aims  can  be  attained  in  ex- 
tensive reading,  for  unlike  intensive  reading,  its  object 
is  not  thorough,  sympathetic  comprehension  and  accu- 
rate interpretation,  but  rather  an  acquaintanceship  with 
the  gems  of  language. 

Extensive  Reading  Designed  to  Give  Practice  in 
Oral  Reading. — Early  in  the  term  teachers  should  set 
aside  those  selections  of  the  term's  reading  which  are 
simple  and  require  a  minimum  of  explanation  and  elab- 
oration. These  should  be  reserved  for  extensive  read- 

154 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

ing  and  should  be  given  to  the  class  as  frequently  as 
the  proficiency  of  the  children  seems  to  indicate.  The 
preparation  for  the  extensive  reading  lesson  is  the  same 
as  for  the  intensive.  But  in  the  reading  itself  silent 
reading  and  elaboration  are  usually  eliminated;  the 
children  read  and  are  corrected.  At  logical  pauses  the 
main  trend  of  the  selection  is  reviewed  briefly  and  oral 
reading  is  again  taken  up.  Since  the  quantitative  side 
of  reading  and  practice  in  oral  rendition  are  the  aims, 
this  procedure  is  designed  to  meet  them. 

Extensive  Reading  for  Familiarity  With  Literature. 
— But  if  the  aim  is  to  give  a  wider  acquaintance  with 
literature,  many  supplementary  aids  must  be  sought 
(i)  Oral  reading  and  elaborations  should  be  reduced 
and  silent  reading  encouraged.  (2)  Every  attempt 
should  be  made  to  have  children  read  at  home  in  the 
hours  of  leisure.  Special  periods  should  be  set  aside 
when  children  report  to  their  classmates  on  the  books 
they  read  and  illustrate  their  talk  by  oral  readings  of 
the  most  favored  parts.  These  reports  are  successful 
aids  toward  starting  children  to  read.  (3)  Reading 
circles  organized  and  directed  by  teachers  produce 
these  same  results.  (4)  Where  possible,  select  a  long 
story  like  "Ten  Boys/'  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  "Robin- 
son Crusoe,"  for  serial  reading  by  the  teacher.  (5) 
Regular  periods  when  stories  are  told  or  read  to  the 
class  can  be  made  very  suggestive  if  the  teacher  will 
at  the  end  of  each  narration  offer  a  list  of  similar 
stories  and  their  authors.  (6)  Where  each  class  has 
a  class  library,  as  in  the  New  York  City  schools,  the 

155 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


teacher  should  study  the  library  record  carefully  and 
find  reasons  why  some  children  do  not  read  or  why 
certain  good  books  are  unread.  This  cannot  be  done 
unless  the  system  for  keeping  this  record  is  convenient 
and  gives  all  the  necessary  information  at  a  glance. 
The  following  chart  which  is  ruled  on  a  large  card- 
board has  proved  very  helpful : 

LIBRARY  RECORD  CLASS  6B1,  P.  S.  No.  —  TERM  BEGINNING  FEBRUARY,  1913 


The  Class 

The  Books 

Ten  Boys 

Uncle 
Tom's 
Cabin 

Wild  Ani- 
mals I  Have 
Known 

Poor  Boys 
Who  Became 
Famous 

Around  the 
World  in 
80  Days 

Adams,  William 

j        2/8 

2/IS 

2/26 

Brown,  James 

2/8 

2/15 
2/8 

Conroy,  John 

2/24 

Davis,  Henry 

2/15 

2/8 

Ellson,  Morris 

2/8 

(Names 

Arranged 

alphabetically) 



Enter  in  appropriate  space  date  when  each  book  is  taken; 
Adams,  Wm.,  read  three  books,  taken  Feb.  8,  15  and  26,  respec- 
tively. 

Draw  colored  line  through  date  when  a  book  is  returned  in 
good  condition. 

Such  a  record  takes  little  time  to  keep,  and  shows  at  a 
glance  what  books  are  popular,  what  boys  read,  and 
how  much  each  boy  reads.  Knowing  these  facts,  the 
teacher  can  take  measures  to  increase  the  popularity 
of  a  good  book  and  to  encourage  a  child  who  does  not 
read. 

Group    Work    in    Beading — One    of     the    difficult 

156 


READING    IN    THE    INTERMEDIARY    GRADES 

problems  in  teaching  reading  in  the  intermediary 
grades  is  the  great  discrepancy  in  the  abilities  of  the 
children  in  any  one  grade.  These  variations  in  ability 
are  equaled  only  by  the  variations  in  the  needs  of 
these  children.  In  class  teaching  each  child  is  cor- 
rected only  when  called  upon  and  is  never  given  a 
specific  set  of  drills  designed  to  correct  his  personal 
shortcomings,  and  bring  him  up  to  grade.  It  becomes 
necessary,  therefore,  to  group  children  according  to 
their  weaknesses  and  to  give  them  instruction  designed 
to  meet  their  needs. 

But  individual  teaching  in  our  present  class  organ- 
ization is  impossible.  Hence  it  becomes  necessary  to 
group  children  according  to  common  failings,  and  then 
differentiate  instruction  accordingly.  What  grouping 
can  be  suggested  ? 

Group  I.  Children  lacking  in  power  of  word  recog- 
nition. 

Group  II.  Children  lacking  in  power  of  comprehen- 
sion. 

Group  III.  Children  lacking  in  expressive  and  con- 
vincing oral  rendition. 

Group  IV.  Children  lacking  in  clearness  of  speech, 
in  articulation,  enunciation,  etc. 

For  the  first  group  the  work  in  phonics  with  its 
analysis,  blend,  family  words,  etc.,  must  be  gone  over 
again.  The  second  group  must  be  trained  to  listen,  to 
read  silently,  to  reproduce ;  special  effort  must  be  made 
to  increase  vocabulary  and  train  in  association  of  sym- 
bol and  idea.  For  the  third  group  all  the  suggestions 

157 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

that  were  made  under  the  topic  of  Expression  must 
be  applied  conscientiously.  The  discussion  of  Clear- 
ness in  the  present  chapter  and  The  Elimination  of 
Habitual  Mispronunciations  in  the  chapter  on  "Pho- 
nics" will  suggest  the  mode  of  procedure  for  the 
fourth  group. 

Only  as  we  approximate  the  specific  needs  of  each 
group  are  we  raising  reading  to  gradually  higher  levels 
in  each  successive  grade,  and  successfully  paving  the 
way  for  the  comprehension  and  appreciation  of  literary 
masterpieces  in  the  last  two  years  of  the  school  course. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

CLARK,  S.  H.  How  to  Read  Aloud  Chicago  UniYersity 
Publications,  1897. 

CHUBB,  P.    The  Teaching  of  English,  chaps.  VII,  X. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  English,  chap.  V. 

HALIBURTON  and  SMITH.  Teaching  of  Poetry  in  the 
Grades.  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 

LAING,  MARY  E.  Reading:  A  Manual  for  Teachers, 
chaps.  IV,  V,  VI,  XII,  XIII,  XIV. 

McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.  Special  Method  in  Reading  for 
the  Grades.  Macmillan  Co. 

TAYLOR,  J.  S.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching 
Reading,  128-162. 


CHAPTER   X 

THE   TEACHING   OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

BEADING  IN  THE  LAST   TWO  YEAES  OF  THE  SCHOOL 
COURSE 

Is  Literature  an  Elementary  School  Subject? — For  a 
long  time  the  school  was  conceived  as  a  formal  insti- 
tution, with  a  very  formal  subject-matter  and  a  still 
more  formal  method.  Its  sole  function  was  to  give  the 
symbols  of  knowledge.  The  mechanics  of  reading 
and  the  ability  to  attack  a  new  combination  of  old  let- 
ters marked  the  limits  of  reading  in  the  elementary 
school.  The  cultural  aspects  of  the  elementary  sub- 
jects were  deemed  far  beyond  the  immature  intellec- 
tual powers  of  the  child.  Hence  literature,  the  art,  or 
cultural  aspect  of  reading,  was  accorded  no  place  in 
the  curriculum  because  its  appreciation  presupposed 
too  great  a  stock  of  mental  powers. 

The  busy  teacher  often  forgets  that  the  child  comes 
to  her  with  feelings,  interests,  and  impulses,  which  are 
well  ingrained  and  are  part  of  childhood,  if  not  child- 
hood itself.  These  inherent  desires  and  capacities, 
when  properly  aroused  and  directed,  become  the  basis 
for  literary  appreciation.  The  inherent  characteris- 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

tics  of  literature  are  such  as  appeal  to  this  native  stock 
of  childhood  interests.  What  are  these  natural  crav- 
ings of  children  that  make  possible  the  appreciation  of 
literature  ?  Children  bring  to  literature : 

1.  A  desire  for  a  wider  world,  a  craving  for  ex- 
periences outside  of  the  realm  of  the  immediate  en- 
vironment in  which  they  live. 

2.  A  craving  for  the  joy  which  comes  from  using 
one's  imagination.    The  highly  imaginative  child  loves 
to  be  transported  into  the  realm  of  nowhere,  where  the 
fairies  reign  and  the  sprites  defy  natural  laws. 

3.  A  love  for  the  beautiful.     The  child's  sesthetic 
sense,  however  crude,  shows  a  definite  craving  for  the 
artistic.     Children  are  attracted  by  pictures,  beautiful 
color  and  harmonious  sounds.     They  strive  for  the 
beautiful  in  their  decorative  and  constructional  de- 
signs; they  give  evidence  of  a  sense  of  rhythm  in 
their    concert    recitations    and    songs.       While   their 
sesthetic  standards  must  be  modified  and  refined,  they 
nevertheless  bespeak  a  craving  which  literature  can 
satisfy. 

4.  A    strong    inclination    toward    hero-worship. 
Every  child  yearns  for  some  hero  in  whom  he  can  pin 
his  faith.     While  he  is  too  young  to  understand  the 
elements  of  character,  he  nevertheless  sees  them  con- 
crete in  his  heroes.     The  child  has  a  sense  of  moral 
values.    He  knows  what  is  good  and  what  is  bad,  what 
to  censure  and  what  to  praise   in  human   conduct. 
Though  the  child  may  not  be  able  to  discuss  his  hero, 
he  feels  the  heroism  in  him  enough  to  admire  him. 

160 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

Literature,  surely,  is  capable  of  satisfying  this  yearn- 
ing. 

5.  A  love  for  the  story.     The  child's  passion  for 
the  story  is  too  well  known  to  need  more  than  passing 
mention ;  "once  upon  a  time"  is  music  to  his  ear. 

6.  A  desire  to  express  his  impulses.     The  child 
finds  a  keen  joy  in  telling  as  well  as  listening,  in  ex- 
pressing what  he  feels  most  and  loves  best.    Children 
love  to  engage  in  dramatics. 

The  child  brings  this  stock  of  native  cravings  to  his 
literary  study.  Literature  can  satisfy  these,  for  it  is 
itself  the  product  of  these  very  emotions  and  yearn- 
ings of  the  race. 

The  initial  question,  "Can  literature  be  taught  in  the 
school?"  is  hence  answered.  But  if  by  teaching  lit- 
erature we  mean  giving  a  thorough  intellectual  com- 
prehension of  the  subject-matter,  then  the  answer 
must  be  a  decided  negative.  If  we  mean  giving  an 
"appreciation,"  then  the  answer  is  decidedly  affirma- 
tive, for  "appreciation"  is  "caught,  not  taught."  If 
children  came  to  us  with  no  native  interests  this  "ap- 
preciation" could  not  be  caught.  But  coming  as  they 
do  with  a  rich  basis  for  literary  appreciation,  we  have 
only  to  call  forth  what  already  exists.  We  need  only 
apply  the  magic  touch,  and  speak  the  "open  sesame" 
and  the  child's  potentialities  for  literary  appreciation 
awaken.  The  only  condition  necessary  before  the 
"open  sesame"  can  be  uttered  is  a  stirring  enthusiasm 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  We  cannot  teach  others  to 
like  what  we  ourselves  do  not  love.  We  cannot  lead 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

others  to  revere  what  we  ourselves  do  not  worship. 
Enthusiasm  begets  enthusiasm,  but  out  of  passive  in- 
terest no  inspiration  springs. 

Why  Did  the  Masterpieces  Replace  the  School  Headers  ? 
— The  introduction  of  the  masterpieces  in  the  school 
course  is  of  recent  date.  A  short  time  ago  the  school 
readers  with  their  varied  literary  diet  were  eliminated 
from  the  last  years  of  the  school  course.  The  reasons 
that  led  to  this  change  are  indices  of  the  limitations  of 
the  school  readers. 

1.  The  old  readers  were  "scrappy."     They  gave 
snatches  of  everything  and  therefore  there  was  lack 
of  unity,  of  purpose,  and  of  organization. 

2.  They  gave  no  lasting  impression.    How  many 
selections  we  read  in  the  ten  or  twelve  readers  that 
we  used  throughout  our  own  school  course  I    Yet  how 
vague  are  our  recollections  of  these  stories,  incidents, 
characters  and  pictures.     As  we  recall  a  masterpiece 
that  we  have  read  carefully  by  ourselves  or  studied 
in  class,  what  a  delightful  contrast  is  there  in  results ! 
How  vivid  is  the  panorama  of  scenes  and  incidents 
that  flits  before  us  even  after  this  long  lapse  of  time ! 
Characters  are  still  real  and  dramatic  situations  are 
still  pregnant  with  tragic  elements. 

3.  The  old  readers  catered  to  the  fickle  interest  of 
the  child.    A  child's  round  of  desires  is  ever-changing. 
His  joy  in  a  new  toy  is  short-lived.    These  old  readers 
pandered  to  the  temporary  and  evanescent  interests  of 
the  child  and  thus  tended  to  encourage  a  temperament 
which  weakens  intellect  and  character. 

162 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

But  we  must  not  forget  that  in  the  earlier  grades 
these  readers  serve  a  useful  purpose.  They  have  im- 
portant functions  which  they  serve  well.  In  earlier 
grades  it  is  necessary  to  teach  the  mechanics  of  reading 
and  give  practice  in  symbol  interpretation  in  order  to 
pave  the  way  for  the  literary  work  which  should  cap 
the  school  course  in  reading.  This  these  readers  ac- 
complish. Because  of  the  child's  limited  ability  and 
experience  in  reading  a  graded  course  is  necessary; 
this,  too,  such  readers  give.  And,  lastly,  there  are  a 
number  of  shorter  literary  gems  that  the  child  should 
carry  with  him.  These  are  given  in  the  above  men- 
tioned readers.  The  old  readers  serve  these  ends  well, 
but  because  they  give  an  "old,  stale,  sterile,  lean"  and 
lifeless  literary  diet,  they  have  been  supplanted  by  a 
sustained  study  of  the  simpler  masterpieces.  But  we 
must  not  go  to  the  other  extreme.  The  school  course 
must  give  the  child  a  knowledge  and  an  appreciation  of 
the  shorter  gems  of  the  languages.  If  a  seventh-year 
class  studies  "Evangeline"  it  should  not  fail  to  take,  in 
the  same  term,  a  number  of  short  selections  of  the 
type  of  "The  Chambered  Nautilus."  The  intensive 
study  of  a  masterpiece  must  not  exclude  extensive 
reading  of  shorter  literary  units  in  poetry,  essay  or 
narrative  form. 

Values  of  the  Masterpiece. — But  aside  from  the  nega- 
tive function  of  counteracting  the  limitations  of  the  old 
readers,  what  are  the  specific  values  of  the  master- 
piece? We  must  stop  for  a  discussion  of  these  values 
because  they  determine  the  aims  of  instruction  and  the 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

organization  of  methods  of  teaching.  The  manifold 
values  of  the  masterpiece  may  be  grouped  under  four 
heads. 

1.  The  Practical  Value: 

a.  A  study  of  the  masterpieces  introduces  the  child 
to  the  best  that  we  have  to  offer  in  our  literary  pos- 
session. 

b.  The  masterpiece  gives  the  child  a  rich  fund  of 
knowledge  of  people,  incidents,  motives — in  a  word, 
of  life;  it  supplements  the  child's  past  acquisition  by 
adding  interesting  side-lights  on  the  child's  own  ex- 
perience.    To  quote,  "It  gives  us  an  inventory  of  the 
heritage  of  the  knowledge  of  humanity." 

c.  The  masterpiece  humanizes  the  child,  by  giving 
him  a  picture  of  all  of  man's  relations  in  society,  his 
relation  in  the  family,  among  his  friends,  in  peace,  in 
war,  in  civic  and  social  life,  in  religion,  etc.     Every 
phase  of  life  is  brought  within  the  ken  of  the  child  for 
his  immediate  scrutiny.    Thus  he  is  offered  "a  libera- 
tion from  the  confining  bonds  of  personal  experience.'* 

2.  The  Study  Value: 

a.  It  develops  the  power  for  sustained  interest. 
The  content  of  the  masterpiece  grips  the  child  and 
works  a  remarkable  change  in  his  power  of  attention. 
His  ever-changing  interests  are  arrested  by  a  sustained 
story  that  has  one  series  of  incidents  and  one  set  of 
characters.  Each  succeeding  term's  work  brings 

164 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

greater  facility  in  sustaining  attention,  and  directing 
effort  toward  the  same  end. 

b.  It  gives  a  unity  of  impression,  which  results  in 
a  lasting  effect.  This  is  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that 
the  masterpiece  gives  a  consistent  and  a  cumulative  im- 
pression. An  author's  power  is  always  lost  in  the  iso- 
lated selections  found  in  readers.  The  force  and  the 
virility  of  Webster's  "Bunker  Hill  Oration"  are  dissi- 
pated in  the  excerpts  used  for  readers.  How  mon- 
strous is  Shy  lock,  if  we  read  only  certain  selections! 
Yet  how  different  is  our  estimate  of  his  actions 
when  we  see  them  in  their  proper  setting  in  the  play. 
How  abusive  is  King  Lear  as  we  read  of  him  in  ex- 
tracts t  Yet  how  willing  are  we  to  forgive  his  vituper- 
ations as  the  whole  situation  is  shown  in  the  play! 
The  impressions  that  selections  and  extracts  give  are 
misleading,  temporary  and  even  erroneous.  The  im- 
pressions of  the  whole  masterpiece  are  reliable  and 
permanent,  for  there  is  a  unity  of  view  that  makes  for 
verisimilitude. 

3.     The  Intellectual  Value: 

a.  It  trains  the  creative  imagination.  The  imag-» 
ination  of  the  young  child  is  not  only  active,  but 
riotous  and  fantastical;  it  is  the  imagination  which 
by  a  wave  of  the  wand  turns  the  hovel  into  a  glittering 
palace  of  gold  and  crystal.  But  the  imagination  which 
education  must  develop  is  the  more  mature  imagina- 
tion, which  creates  the  possible.  This  is  the  imagina- 
tion which  brings  forth  new  inventions,  practical  re- 

165 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

forms,  and  visions  of  improved  social  life.  Literature 
can  train  the  constructive  imagination  through  its  ver- 
bal pictures,  its  portrayals  of  all  situations.  There  are 
many  ways  in  which  we  can  take  advantage  of  the  pos- 
sibilities here  offered  for  training  the  imagination.  The 
simplest  method  is  to  encourage  the  child  to  give  a 
pictorial  or  diagrammatic  representation  of  the  action 
or  the  picture  contained  in  the  text.  Actual  motor  ex- 
pression of  the  content  is  a  second  method  of  training 
imagination.  When  the  child  reads,  "And  Rip  trudged 
along  wearily,  with  his  gun  on  his  shoulder,"  the 
natural  tendency  is  to  pass  over  the  picture.  Make 
the  child  "trudge  along  wearily"  in  imitation  of  Rip. 
Now  the  child  "sees"  the  picture,  otherwise,  he  could 
never  dramatize  the  action.  This  mental  imaging  of 
the  author's  picture  trains  the  imagination  in  the  edu- 
cational sense.  Another  and  still  simpler  method  for 
directing  the  imagination  is  by  verbal  description.  Ask 
the  child  to  visualize  the  picture  and  describe  the  com- 
ponent elements  and  the  characteristic  details.  The 
child  thus  again  helps  the  mind's  power  to  picture  the 
real  and  the  possible.  Training  the  imagination  does 
not  mean,  therefore,  stimulating  an  oversensitive  and 
ultra  active  power  for  rich  imagery. 

b.  The  masterpiece  affords  opportunities  for  the 
exercise  of  reason  and  judgment  in  practical  and 
worldly  relations.  Throughout  the  masterpiece  the 
child  is  asked  to  discover  the  meaning  of  passages,  to 
interpret  statements,  to  judge  motives,  to  estimate 
character.  Thought  in  literature  differs  from  the  for- 

166 


THE  TEACHING   OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

mal  reasoning  of  verbal  or  quantitative  relationships  in 
grammar  or  arithmetic,  but  closely  approximates  the 
practical  reasoning  which  confronts  us  daily  in  life. 
How  to  bring  out  the  thought  value  of  literature  will 
be  considered  in  the  discussion  of  the  method  of  teach- 
ing the  masterpiece. 

4.     The  Character  Value: 

To  many  teachers  of  English  the  ethical  value  of 
the  masterpiece  is  its  ultimate  justification.  They  base 
their  stand  on  the  fact  that  the  child  who  is  introduced 
to  this  phase  of  literature  is  rapidly  approaching  the 
period  of  adolescence.  The  changes  in  the  physical, 
intellectual  and  emotional  life  of  the  child  bring  an 
awakening  maturity  in  outlook,  in  desires  and  tastes. 
It  is  a  period  when  ideals  are  selected  and  conduct  is 
beset  with  conflicting  impulses;  it  is  a  period  of  ma- 
turing thought.  The  moralities  heretofore  taught  on 
the  basis  of  parental  authority  are  now  questioned. 
This  truly  is  the  period  of  "Sturm  und  Drang,"  when 
moral  guidance  and  inspiration  are  especially  neces- 
sary. 

Matthew  Arnold  tells  us  that  there  are  two  elements 
in  human  nature  that  crave  especially  for  literature; 
these  are  a  sense  of  the  beautiful  and  a  sense  of  con- 
duct. Literature  is  especially  fitted  to  answer  the  sec- 
ond as  well  as  the  first  appeal  for  many  reasons: 

a.  It  makes  concrete  and  personal  ethical  principles 
that  are  abstract  and  impersonal.  Unselfish  devotion 
is  not  an  abstraction.  Evangeline  is  a  living  embodi- 

167 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

ment  of  this  virtue.  Patriotism  and  altruism  are  taken 
out  of  the  realm  of  unattainable  virtues  and  made 
tangible  and  attainable  in  the  living  character,  Brutus. 
We  have  here  then  a  crystallization  of  the  ideals  of 
humanity. 

b.  The  literary  masterpiece  so  presents  characters 
that  it  wins  the  child's  love  for  the  good  and  its  dis- 
approval of  the  wrong.     It  appeals  to  an  elemental 
sense  of  justice  inherent  in  childhood. 

c.  It  supplies  "The  Expulsive  Power  of  Higher 
Emotions."    Our  psychology  tells  us  that  no  two  con- 
flicting emotions  can  control  the  mind  for  any  time. 
Either  one  or  the  other  obtains  the  mastery  and  thus 
has  the  upper  hand.    Awaken  a  noble  desire  or  feeling 
and  a  baser  one  immediately  dies.     Pity  will  at  once 
banish  hate,  confidence  at  once  expels  fear,  admiration 
kills  treachery.     Ethical  training  would  be  impossible 
if  we  had  to  eradicate  the  baser  nature  before  implant- 
ing nobler  ideals.    The  mere  fact  that  the  presence  of 
a  lofty  ideal  in  the  mind  at  once  precludes  the  existence 
of  a  meaner  motive  of  conduct,  makes  ethical  training 
possible  through  the  inculcation  of  positive  ideals.  Lit- 
erature fills  the  mind  with  the  loftier  sentiments  and 
thus  gives  them  an  expulsive  power  over  the  lower 
ones. 

d.  The  emotional   appeal  guarantees   action.     A 
formal  ethical  lesson  without  an  appeal  to  the  emotions 
is  usually  not  effective.    It  appeals  to  the  intellect,  and 
brings  conviction,  but  not  action.     The  ultimate  en- 
deavor of  ethical  teaching  is  to  influence  action  and 

168 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

change  conduct.  This  can  be  achieved  only  as  we  ap- 
peal to  emotions,  the  springs  to  action.  The  appeal 
of  literature  is  intensely  emotional. 

e.  It  creates  a  love  for  reading.  The  masterpiece 
is  important  as  a  character  influence,  because  of  the 
permanent  habits  it  tends  to  develop.  Taught  prop- 
erly, it  inculcates  a  desire  to  read,  a  love  for  the  better 
forms  of  literature,  and  thus  gives  the  child  a  perma- 
nent source  of  inspiration,  a  lifelong  medium  of  whole- 
some recreation. 

Conclusion. — The  influence  of  literature  is  hence 
keen  and  positive,  bringing  an  ever  ready  response  in 
its  appeal  to  the  heart,  for  the  Proverbs  tell  us  "As  in 
the  water,  face  answereth  face,  so  the  heart  of  man,  to 
man."  Whitman  strikes  the  same  note  when  he  as- 
sures us, 

Surely,  whoever  speaks  to  me  in  the  right  voice,  him  or 

her  shall  I  follow, 
As  the  water  follows  the  moon,  silently,  with  fluid  steps, 

anywhere  around  the  globe. 

TeacMng  the  Masterpiece. — Now  that  we  have  seen 
the  objects  that  are  to  be  attained  in  the  study  of  lit- 
erary masterpieces,  we  must  turn  to  a  consideration  of 
the  method  of  teaching  them.  Common  procedure  re- 
quires three  readings;  first,  for  the  story,  second,  for 
intensive  study,  and,  third,  for  increased  appreciation 
and  unity  of  impression.  The  following  discussion 
endeavors  to  indicate  that  the  method  of  three  stereo- 

169 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

typed  readings  must  be  modified  in  the  interest  of 
keener  and  more  appreciative  literary  study. 


THE  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  THE 

MASTERPIECE 

The  Intellectual  Preparation. — i.  The  Fact  Back- 
ground.— It  is  obvious  that  the  children  need  a  back- 
ground of  facts  of  time,  place,  customs,  and  contem- 
porary life  in  order  to  understand  the  action  of  "Julius 
Caesar,"  of  "Evangeline,"  or  of  the  "Lady  of  the 
Lake."  This  background  of  fact  must  be  given.  But 
it  is  dangerous  to  seize  upon  this  opportunity  to  cor- 
relate and  give  an  extensive  geography  or  history  les- 
son. Detailed  map  work,  research  in  history  and  the 
like  are  here  out  of  place.  Correlation  aims  to  unify 
subjects  in  order  to  enrich  a  central  idea.  We  are  not 
engaged  in  enriching  the  child's  knowledge  of  geo- 
graphy or  history,  but  in  developing  appreciation.  The 
facts  of  geography  are  intellectual.  "The  Lady  of  the 
Lake"  is  an  embodiment  of  the  sentiment  of  Scotch 
Highland  life.  The  facts  of  history  are  social. 
"Evangeline"  is  an  emotional  presentation,  not  a  his- 
toric exposition.  It  is  always  unwise  to  warn  the 
child  that  the  true  facts  of  geography  or  history  are 
distorted  in  the  literary  work  that  they  study.  Shake- 
speare portrays  his  Caesar;  the  teacher's  object  must  be 
to  lead  the  children  to  feel  the  reality  of  Shakespeare's 
•characterization.  Introduce  the  real  Caesar  and  the 

170 


THE   TEACHING   OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

cture  falls  at  once.  The  teacher  need  not  be  con- 
cerned about  the  discrepancies  between  Longfellow's 
Acadia  and  the  real  Acadia.  Longfellow  refused  to 
visit  the  place  himself  after  he  wrote  his  description. 
We  must  not  destroy  the  picture  that  the  poet  cher- 
ished. In  his  "Evangeline"  Longfellow  did  not  write 
of  the  geography  of  Acadia,  but  rather  of  the  "beauty 
and  strength  of  woman's  devotion." 

2.  Author's  Life. — A  knowledge  of  the  main  cur- 
rents of  the  author's  life  is  necessary  for  a  thorough 
appreciation  of  the  masterpiece,  which  is  an  expression 
of  his  power  and  personality.  It  is  also  useful  infor- 
mation. The  author  should  be  more  than  a  mere 
name.  But  when  shall  we  study  him  ?  Not  before  the 
first  reading!  The  reasons  are  many. 

a.  There  is  no  motive  in  such  a  study.    The  child 
does  not  understand  why,  of  all  the  books  that  he  re- 
ceives at  the  beginning  of  a  term,  the  author  of  one 
of  these  should  be  dignified  more  than  the  others.    He 
does  not  study  the  life  of  the  author  of  his  book  on 
grammar  or  arithmetic.    Why  single  out  Shakespeare 
or  Longfellow?    But  if  the  teacher  insists,  the  child 
will  study  the  facts  that  are  given  him  or  those  that  he 
copies  from  the  encyclopedia.     But  it  is  an  arbitrary 
and  dispirited  task.    Every  biography  studied  must  be 
a  source  of  inspiration.     If,  however,  we  wait  until 
the  story  is  read  and  the  children  are  thrilled  by  it, 
each  pupil  feels  an  urgency  to  know  the  writer  more 
intimately. 

b.  A  writer's  life  is  usually  not  an  interesting  one 

171 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

for  the  child  because  it  is  a  life  of  appreciation,  of 
artistic  ideals  and  their  expression.  The  child's  hero 
is  a  man  of  action,  whose  achievements  are  fraught 
with  adventure.  In  these  biographical  studies  we  must 
omit  all  details  of  genealogy,  all  analysis  of  style,  and 
any  discussion  of  the  author's  relation  to  his  time. 
This  information  is  without  the  pale  of  the  child's  in- 
terests and  comprehension.  Aside  from  the  details  of 
the  author's  life  we  must  emphasize  the  essentials  of 
character  that  are  revealed  in  his  masterpiece.  Take 
up  Longfellow's  religious  fervor,  his  love  for  the 
types  of  simple  honest  manhood  and  womanhood  de- 
picted in  "Evangeline."  Every  page  reflects  these. 
Bring  out  Whittier's  love  for  the  poor  and  the  down- 
trodden. It  is  perhaps  best  to  begin  this  study  with 
the  question,  "What  kind  of  man  would  write  'Evange- 
line ?' '  Let  the  children  suggest  probable  traits  of 
character  and  personality  and  then  verify  these.  The 
aim  throughout  should  be  to  make  the  name  of  the 
author  bring  to  mind  a  number  of  strong  emotions, 
so  that  the  child  may  carry  away  a  definite,  permanent 
and  sympathetic  impression. 

The  Emotional  Background:  Why  necessary? — The 
discussion  thus  far  sought  to  emphasize  that  the  ap- 
preciation of  the  masterpiece  must  be  emotional,  not 
intellectual.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  make  the 
children  emotionally  receptive  for  the  author's  appeal. 
Frequently  the  poet  does  this  himself  in  his  prelude. 
"This  is  the  forest  primeval,  the  murmuring  pines  and 
the  hemlocks,"  strikes  at  once  the  minor  strain  of 

172 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

"Evangeline."  In  the  overture  the  musician  makes 
this  same  attempt  to  prepare  his  auditors  emotionally. 
How  can  we  make  our  children  emotionally  receptive 
for  the  message  of  the  literary  masterpiece?  Two 
suggestions  follow: 

1.  Through  pictures:    Procure  as  many  pictures  as 
possible,  whose  themes  are  taken  from  the  master- 
piece; pictures  representing  scenery,  incident,  charac- 
ters, etc.    These  are  hung  about  the  room,  and  nothing 
is  said  in  explanation,  until  the  intensive  study  brings 
the  class  to  the  incidents  in  the  pictures.     But  in  the 
meantime,  the  children  are  encouraged  to  look  at  these 
and  get  what  they  can  out  of  them.     Nothing  very 
definite  is  gained,  but  they  serve  to  arouse  necessary 
sentiments  and  create  a  sympathetic  atmosphere. 

2.  Foreshadow  the  probabilities  of  the  story:    A 
second  and  more  positive  method  of  arousing  the 
proper  emotional  background  is  to  foreshadow  the  na- 
ture and  the  probable  trend  of  the  story  which  is  to  be 
studied.     This  can  best  be  done  by  stimulating  the 
child's  imaginative  powers  in  the  desired  direction, 
rather  than  by  a  direct  statement.    Thus,  after  the  pre- 
liminary historical  setting  had  been  given  for  "Evan- 
geline," and  the  children  had  been  told  of  the  order  to 
banish  these  simple  souls  from  Acadia  and  scatter 
them  over  the  continent,  the  teached  asked,  "What 
tragedies  might  occur  in  carrying  out  such  an  order?" 
Children  in  a  seventh-year  class  suggested,  "A  hard- 
working farmer  would  lose  all  his  possessions,"  an- 
other, "People  would  be  homeless  and  penniless,"  an- 

173 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

other,  "Families  would  be  broken  up,"  still  another, 
"Father  and  mother,  parents  and  children  would  be 
separated,"  etc.  The  teacher  then  announced,  "Let  us 
turn  to  the  tragedy  Longfellow  pictures."  The  neces- 
sary sentiments  of  pity  and  sympathy  were  aroused; 
every  child  was  emotionally  conditioned  for  the  story 
that  the  "murmuring  pines"  and  the  "disconsolate 
waves"  had  to  tell.  So,  too,  with  Julius  Caesar.  The 
teacher  told  the  facts  of  the  democratic  government 
in  Rome,  of  Caesar's  rapid  rise,  of  Pompey's  end,  and 
then  asked,  "Why  would  a  man  in  Caesar's  position 
have  enemies  ?"  The  answers  were  many  and  varied. 
The  teacher  then  continued,  "What  would  you  nat- 
urally expect  these  enemies  to  do?"  The  obvious  an- 
swer, "Fall  to  plotting,"  was  readily  elicited.  "Let  us 
begin  therefore  the  great  plot  against  Caesar."  With 
this  initial  preparation  the  children's  minds  were  pre- 
pared to  look  behind  motives,  to  watch  for  the  tale 
which  had  been  foreshadowed. 


THE   FIRST 

How  to  Be  Given.— ^The  name,  "The  First  Reading," 
is  often  construed  literally  by  teachers  and  becomes  a 
reading  for  the  story  only.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
teachers  and  children  reading  the  masterpiece  alter- 
nately, omitting  all  comments  and  centering  interest 
exclusively  on  the  narrative.  This  first  reading  does 
not  achieve  the  desired  results  for  many  reasons.  First, 
some  parts  are  too  difficult  to  convey  any  meaning  to 

174 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

the  children.  Secondly,  certain  portions  that  are 
purely  descriptive  or  that  serve  to  give  local  color  seem 
devoid  of  interest  to  the  pupils.  Thirdly,  this  long 
reading,  unrelieved  by  comment,  brings  with  it  a  life- 
lessness  and  a  listlessness  that  produce  a  wrong  atti- 
tude toward  the  masterpiece. 

The  term  "First  Reading"  must  be  construed  lib- 
erally to  mean,  "Give  the  story  in  a  most  vivid  and 
spirited  manner  for  the  purpose  of  arousing  maximum 
enthusiasm  in  the  term's  work."  The  actual  mode  of 
conducting  this  "First  Reading"  varies  therefore  with 
each  masterpiece. 

a.  In  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake"  the  average  seventh- 
or  eighth-year  pupil  finds  the  language  difficult,  the 
background  altogether  new,  the  style  involved,  and 
the  action  not  at  all  times  clear.    It  is  evident  that  the 
children  cannot  get  the  story  from  a  mere  reading  by 
the  teacher.    It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  tell  the  story 
in  the  most  vivid  and  interesting  manner  without  hav- 
ing recourse  to  the  masterpiece  itself. 

b.  In  "Julius  Caesar"  the  conditions  are  different; 
the  language  is  simpler,  the  story  is  full  of  action,  and 
the  dialogue  makes  for  readier  comprehension.     The 
method  of  conducting  the  first  reading  in  this  case  is 
the  direct  opposite  to  that  in  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake." 
After  the  teacher  decides  what  scenes  can  readily  be 
omitted  as  not  being  vital  to  the  story  she  should  read 
the  rest  of  the  play  to  the  children.     Since  most  chil- 
dren lack  the  fluency  and  the  expressiveness  necessary 
for  proper  oral  rendition,  the  teacher  must  bear  the 

175 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO   READ 

full  burden  of  this  reading,  realizing  that  effective 
work  here  develops  in  each  child  a  proper  attitude  to- 
ward the  study  of  the  coming  term. 

c.  In  "Evangeline"  both  sets  of  conditions  prevail, 
viz.,  some  parts  are  suited  for  oral  reading  as  in 
"Julius  Caesar/'  while  others  are  too  difficult  or  lack 
interest,  as  in  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake."  Both  meth- 
ods of  giving  the  story  must  therefore  be  used  in 
"Evangeline,"  viz.,  alternate  reading  and  telling.  The 
simpler  parts  of  this  masterpiece  are  read,  while  the 
more  difficult  ones  are  summarized  by  the  teacher ;  the 
unity  of  the  story  is  thus  maintained.  By  a  skillful 
blending  of  reading  and  narration  the  "first  reading" 
is  completed.  An  illustration  will  make  this  procedure 
clear  to  the  teacher. 


Original  Text: 

In  the  Acadian  land,  on  the 

shores   of   the  basin  of 

Minas, 
Distant,  secluded,  still,  the 

little  village   of   Grand- 

Pre 
Lay  in  the  fruitful  valley. 

Vast  meadows  stretched 

to  the  eastward . 
Giving  the  village  its  name 

and    pasture    to    flocks 

without  number. 


Teacher  Reads: 

In  the  Acadian  land,  on  the 

shores   of   the  basin   of 

Minas, 
Distant,  secluded,  still,  the 

little   village   of   Grand- 

Pre 
Lay  in  the  fruitful  valley. 

Vast  meadows  stretched 

to  the  eastward 
Giving  the  village  its  name 

and    pasture    to    flocks 

without  number. 


176 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 


Dikes  that  the  hands  of  the 
farmers  had  raised  with 
labor  incessant 

Shut  out  the  turbulent 
tides;  but  at  stated  sea- 
sons the  flood-gates 

Opened  and  welcomed  the 
sea  to  wander  o'er  the 
meadows. 

West  and  south  there  were 
fields  of  flax,  and  or- 
c  h  a  r  d  s  and  cornfields 


Dikes  that  the  hands  of  the 
farmers  had  raised  with 
labor  incessant 

Shut  out  the  turbulent 
tides;  but  at  stated  sea- 
sons the  flood-gates 

Opened  and  welcomed  the 
sea  to  wander  o'er  the 
meadows. 

West  and  south  there  were 
fields  of  flax,  and  or- 
c  h  a  r  d  s  and  cornfields 


Spreading  afar  and  un- 
f  enced  o'er  the  plain ;  and 
away  to  the  northward 

Blomidon  rose,  and  the  for- 
ests old,  and  aloft  on  the 
mountains 

Seafogs  pitched  their  tents, 
and  mists  from  the 
mighty  Atlantic 

Looked  on  the  happy  val- 
ley, but  ne'er  from  their 
station  descended. 


[And  to  the  north  rose  the 
mountains  with  their 
mist-covered  peaks] 


There  in  the  midst  of  its     There  in  the  midst  of  its 


farms,  reposed  the  Aca- 
dian village. 

Strongly  built  were  their 
houses,  with  frames  of 
oak  and  of  hemlock, 


farms,  reposed  the  Aca- 
dian village. 

Strongly  built  were  their 
houses,  with  frames  of 
oak  and  of  hemlock ; 


177 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 


Such  as  the  peasants  of 
Normandy  built  in  the 
reign  of  the  Henries. 


Thatched  were  their  roofs, 

with    dormer   windows ; 

and  gables  projecting 
Over  the  casement  below 

protected  and  shaded  the 

doorway. 

etc. 


[Queer  were  their  roofs, 
and  queerer  still  their 
windows.] 


etc. 


The  Stopping  Places  in  the  First  Beading. — It  is 

evident  that  the  teacher  cannot  complete  the  first  read- 
ing in  a  single  period.  The  teacher  who  construes  this 
first  reading  to  mean,  "Giving  the  story  in  a  manner 
designed  to  arouse  maximum  enthusiasm,"  must  care- 
fully plan  the  part  of  the  masterpiece  that  is  to  be 
read  at  each  period,  for  a  wise  selection  of  pauses  con- 
tributes much  to  the  interest  in  the  story.  Let  us  as- 
sume that  on  the  first  day  when  this  oral  reading  is 
given  the  teacher  by  skillfully  alternating  reading  and 
telling  covers  that  part  of  the  story  which  deals  with 
the  village  of  Acadia,  its  people  and  their  life,  the  in- 
troduction of  the  main  characters,  the  signing  of  the 
wedding  contract  between  Ev&ngeline  and  Gabriel, 
the  rumors  in  the  village  when  a  warship  appears  in 
the  harbor,  the  conjectures  started  by  the  proclamation 
that  all  male  dwellers  in  Acadia  assemble  in  the  church, 
the  gathering  of  the  excited  villagers  in  the  house  of 
worship,  the  clanging  of  the  shutting  gates,  the  pres- 
ence of  armed  guards  and  the  reading  of  the  royal 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

proclamation,  "Ye  are  banished/*  The  teacher  then 
reads  or  tells  of  the  confusion  which  broke  out  in  the 
church,  and  of  Basil  shouting  his  defiance,  "Down 
with  the  traitors,  we  never  have  sworn  them  alle- 
giance, .  .  .  Fain  he  would  have  said  more  but 
the  hand  of  a  soldier  smote  him."  The  reading  is 
continued,  as  the  children  sit  in  breathless  expecta- 
tion: 

In  the  midst  of  this  tumult  of  angry  contention, 

Lo !  the  door  of  the  chancel  opened,  and  Father  Felician 

entered ; 
Raising  his  reverend  hand,  with  a  gesture  he  awed  into 

silence 
All  that  clamorous  throng.    And  thus  he  spake  to  his 

people ; 
Deep  were  his  tones  and  solemn.    In  accents  measured 

and  mournful 
Spake  he:     .  .  ;  .  . 
What  is  this  that  ye  do,  my  children?    What  madness 

has  seized  you? 
Forty  years  of  my  life  have  I  labored  among  you,  and 

taught  you, 

Not  in  word  alone,  but  in  deed,  to  love  one  another ! 
Is  this  the  fruit  of  my  toils,  of  my  vigils  and  prayers  and 

privations  ? 

Have  you  so  soon  forgotten  all  lessons  of  love  and  for- 
giveness ? 
This  is  the  house  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  and  would  you 

profane  it 
Thus  with  violent  deeds  and  hearts  overflowing  with 

hatred? 

179 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

Lo!  where  the  crucified  Christ  from  his  cross  is  gazing 
upon  you! 

See!  in  those  sorrowful  eyes  what  meekness,  and  holy 
compassion ! 

Hark !  how  those  lips  still  repeat  the  prayer,  "O  Father, 
forgive  them!" 

Let  us  repeat  that  prayer  in  the  hour  when  the  wicked 
assail  us, 

Let  us  repeat  it  now,  and  say,  "O  Father,  forgive  them !" 

Few  were  his  words  of  rebuke,  but  deep  in  the  hearts  of 
his  people 

Sank  they,  and  sobs  of  contrition  succeeded  the  passion- 
ate outbreak 

While  they  repeated  his  prayer,  and  said,  "O  Father,  for- 
give them!" 

The  teacher  then  concludes,  "I  wonder  whether  the 
hearts  of  these  soldiers  were  touched !  Did  they  carry 
out  the  cruel  order!  We  shall  see  to-morrow!"  and 
the  first  day's  reading  is  over.  We  must  therefore 
stop  at  a  dynamic  pause  which  produces  an  effect  simi- 
lar to  the  irritating  "Continued  in  our  Next!" 

Cautions  in  the  First  Heading. — A  word  of  caution 
may  be  of  service  in  helping  to  heighten  the  effect  of 
this  first  reading. 

1.  Be  well  prepared  to  make  these  shifts  from 
reading  to  telling.     There  must  be  no  hesitation,  and 
no  searching  for  simpler  verbal  equivalents.    The  book 
must  be  well  marked  so  that  the  whole  period  moves 
along  smoothly. 

2.  Do  not  allow  the  children  to  follow  in  their 

180 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

books.  It  will  confuse  them  as  the  teacher  constantly 
modifies  the  text.  Let  them  learn  to  listen  intelligently 
and  get  the  maximum  pleasure  out  of  the  period. 

3.  Do  not  allow  the  children  to  take  their  books 
home  until  the  first  reading  is  completed.  The  interest 
in  the  story  which  the  teacher  aroused  makes  them 
anxious  to  read  ahead.  But  in  their  own  reading  they 
meet  those  difficulties  which  the  teacher  is  removing 
temporarily,  and  they  experience  a  sense  of  disappoint- 
ment. In  the  intensive  study  of  the  masterpiece  they 
will  be  given  plenty  of  opportunity  to  do  their  inde- 
pendent reading. 

"Why  not  merely  tell  the  story?"  the  teacher  may 
ask.  The  aim  is,  not  only  to  give  the  outline  of  the 
story,  but  to  give  the  atmosphere,  the  dominant  senti- 
ment, the  music  of  the  whole  masterpiece.  To  merely 
tell  the  story  gives  a  cold-blooded  recital  of  a  nar- 
rative. To  give  the  story  with  the  maximum  original 
setting  gives  the  spirit  and  the  mood  in  which  the  mas- 
terpiece was  conceived. 

THE  SECOND   READING:    THE  STUDY  OF  THE 

MASTERPIECE 

Divide  the  Masterpiece  into  Intensive  and  Extensive 
Reading  Selections — It  is  evident  that  the  entire  mas- 
terpiece cannot  be  taken  up  for  intensive  study.  The 
teacher  must  therefore  divide  the  entire  reading  matter 
into  selections  to  be  used  for  extensive  or  for  intensive 
reading.  Such  parts  as  are  particularly  well  adapted 

181 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

for  class  study  and  well  designed  to  develop  literary 
appreciation  must  be  treated  intensively.  But  other 
parts  that  are  either  very  simple  or  that  lack  in  ability 
to  maintain  an  intense  interest  in  immature  children 
must  be  read  quickly  and  extensively  merely  to  pre- 
serve the  unity  of  the  masterpiece  and  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity for  practice  in  oral  reading.  Intensive  reading 
means  material  "chewed  and  digested" ;  extensive  read- 
ing is  only  a  process  of  "touch  and  go."  Dividing  the 
masterpiece  into  selections  for  intensive  and  extensive 
reading  will  give  opportunities  ( i )  for  literary  study, 
(2)  for  practice  in  reading,  (3)  for  preserving  the 
unity  of  the  whole  selection,  and  (4)  for  maintaining 
a  uniform  level  of  interest. 

Assign  for  Study  Such  Parts  as  Will  Be  Bead  Inten- 
sively.— The  selections  that  are  to  be  used  for  intensive 
reading  in  the  class  should  be  assigned  for  indepen- 
dent study  either  at  home  or  during  school  study 
periods.  Children  in  the  latter  part  of  the  school 
course  must  learn  to  use  their  dictionaries,  and  to  learn 
the  meaning  of  such  expressions  and  allusions  as  are 
given  in  the  footnotes  or  glossaries.  Time  and  effort 
are  thus  saved  and  the  teacher  can  emphasize  the  lit- 
erary rather  than  the  formal  aspect  of  the  text.  Since 
the  ideal  in  all  teaching  is  to  make  the  child  indepen- 
dent of  the  teacher,  this  book  work  by  the  child  is 
highly  justifiable. 

Will  the  Home  Reading  Kill  Interest  in  Class  Read- 
ing?— Many  teachers  fail  to  assign  home  reading  be- 
cause they  fear  that  they  may  jeopardize  the  interest 

182 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

in  class  work.  But  if  the  teacher  in  this  second  read- 
ing is  ready  to  open  to  the  child  the  fund  of  sugges- 
tion, of  thought,  of  beauty,  of  character  study  hidden 
in  each  page,  the  latter  will  enjoy  an  ever-changing 
panorama  which  he  did  not  see  in  his  home  reading.  It 
must  also  be  remembered  that  children,  like  adults,  de- 
light in  the  repetition  of  a  pleasant  thought.  How 
often  children  ask  us  to  tell  them  some  one  of  the 
many  stories  they  knowf  They  are  familiar  with  all 
the  details  and  are  ever  ready  to  correct  us  when  we 
vary  the  story  from  the  form  that  they  learned.  If 
the  class  readings  have  teaching  merit,  flagging  inter- 
est, due  to  home  reading,  need  cause  the  teacher  no 
concern. 

What  Shall  We  Select  for  Intensive  Beading? — The 
spirit  of  the  literary  period  will  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  selections  used  for  intensive  study.  With 
this  end  in  view,  the  following  standards  are  offered 
to  guide  in  the  selection  of  a  text  for  intensive  reading : 

1.  Is  it  Vital  to  the  Masterpiece?— What  is  of 
minor  importance  should  be  omitted  in  intensive  work. 

2.  Is  it  Complete  in  Itself? — It  must  be  an  inci- 
dent, a  description,  an  exposition,  a  scene,  i.  e.,  a  lit- 
erary or  comoosition  unit.    Thus,  in  "Evangeline"  the 
church  scene,  or  the  description  of  the  village,  or  the 
marriage  contract  would  constitute  such  a  unit  for  in- 
tensive reading.     The  assignment  by  pages  or  lines 
as  is  customary  in  Latin  recitations  must  not  be  dupli- 
cated in  the  teaching  of  English. 

3.  Does  It  Need  Elaboration? — There  is  a  danger 

183 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

in  elaborating  and  expanding  the  obvious,  in  stating  in 
cold  explanation  what  the  child  not  only  understands 
but  feels  as  a  result  of  the  author's  appeal.  How  flat 
does  the  teacher's  statement,  "Brutus  is  unselfish," 
sound  after  Brutus 's  soliloquy  in  his  garden,  in  which 
every  word  breathes  unselfish  devotion  to  the  common 
welfare.  To  explain  a  sentiment  that  the  child  feels 
is  to  bring  the  sublime  to  the  low  level  of  the  common- 
place. 

4.  Has  It  a  Central  Thought? — Each  part  that  is 
selected  for  intensive  study  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
try  to  bring  out  one  central  theme  or  principle  in  lit- 
erary study.  For  example,  the  aim  of  one  selection 
may  be  to  teach  character  interpretation.  Through- 
out the  lesson  the  art  of  character  portrayal  is  made 
focal.  The  child  is  shown  that  he  can  analyze  the 
character  of  any  person  in  the  story  by  his  actions,  by 
his  statements  and  by  what  others  say  of  him.  Thus 
in  the  tent  scene  and  in  the  quarrel  scene  in  "Julius 
Caesar"  the  child  is  led  to  study  Brutus' s  character 
through  his  acts  of  consideration  manifested  toward 
Lucius  and  through  his  protests  against  the  dubious 
methods  of  Cassius.  Each  act  and  each  statement  of 
Brutus  is  made  to  cast  some  light  on  his  personality. 
The  scene  which  portrays  the  Acadians  huddled  in 
miserable  groups  on  the  shore,  on  the  eve  of  their  ban- 
ishment, offers  rich  material  for  a  character  study  of 
Evangeline.^^he  child  notes  Evangeline's  every  ac- 
tion, hears  her  words  of  cheer  and  comfort  to  others 
in  the  face  of  her  own  impending  tragedy,  and  listens 

184 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

to  what  the  grief -stricken  say  about  her.  At  the  end 
of  the  study  of  this  scene  Evangeline  looms  up  a  liv- 
ing incarnation  of  Christian  forbearance  and  unselfish 
devotion  to  others.  Concentrating  on  one  point,  viz., 
"means  of  interpreting  character,"  gives  the  children 
a  method  which  they  can  apply  in  their  own  read- 
ing; it  opens  their  eyes  and  enables  them  to  "see 
character"  as  in  incidents  that  they  would  otherwise 
overlook. 

In  the  same  way  a  selection  may  be  used,  because  it 
is  an  excellent  model  of  description.  Throughout  the 
intensive  reading  all  attention  is  focussed  on  how  the 
picture  is  developed,  and  how  the  author  uses  color 
words  and  characteristic  details  to  convey  a  vivid  im- 
pression of  the  scene  he  sees  in  his  mind's  eye.  Here 
the  child  carries  away  a  standard  which  enables  him 
to  appreciate  a  description  in  his  own  later  reading. 
For  the  same  reason,  a  part  of  the  masterpiece  may 
be  selected,  because  it  teaches  the  structure  of  skillful 
narration  or  because  it  is  rich  in  diction.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  governing  aim  is  to  impress  upon  the  pupil's 
minds  the  charm  of  a  happy  choice  of  words.  By 
way  of  illustration  may  be  offered  the  scene  in  which 
the  conspirators  are  planning  to  murder  Casar,  and 
Brutus  pleads : 

"Let  us  be  sacrificers  but  not  butchers — 
Let  us  kill  him  boldly  but  not  wrath  fully, 
Let  us  carve  him  as  a  dish  fit  for  the  gods, 
Not  hew  him  as  a  carcass  fit  for  hounds " 

185 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

Or  when  Evangeline  decides  to  give  up  her  will-o'- 
the-wisp  search,  and  lead  a  useful  life  as  a  nun,  help- 
ing the  distressed  and  the  sick,  Longfellow  paints 
beautifully  the  scene  which  begins,  "As  when  the  mist 
from  the  mountain  tops,  .  .  ."  When  such  selections 
are  chosen  for  intensive  reading,  the  beauty,  the  force, 
the  elegance,  the  richness  and  suggestiveness  of  dic- 
tion are  made  central  to  the  exclusion  of  everything 
else. 

There  are  excellent  advantages  in  organizing  inten- 
sive readings  around  one  principle  of  literary  appre- 
ciation :  ( I )  The  child  is  given  a  means  of  judging 
such  elements  when  they  recur  in  later  readings.  (2) 
A  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression  is  almost  in- 
evitable. (3)  It  enables  the  teacher  to  assign  home 
work  around  a  specific  problem.  Thus  the  teacher  as- 
signs :  "Read  Scene  I  of  Act  I  and  see  if  you  can  tell 
why  it  is  necessary  to  the  story,"  or  "Read  Scene  II  of 
Act  I  and  see  if  you  can  find  a  suggestion  as  to  the 
ending  of  the  story,"  or  "See  if  you  can  describe  chai- 
acter  A."  Such  an  assignment  encourages  concentra- 
tion, and  indicates  to  the  child  along  what  lines  to 
think  in  order  to  reach  the  heart  of  the  problem. 

Aims  in  Intensive  Beading. — During  the  course  of 
the  oral  reading  teachers  must  seek  to  subordinate 
minor  aims  to  higher  literary  values.  Hence,  as  chil- 
dren are  called  upon  successively  to  read  the  text,  we 
must  strive  to  attain  a  threefold  aim :  ( i )  Thought. 
— Throughout  the  lesson  every  question  and  every 
suggestion  must  be  such  as  to  demand  maximum 

186 


THE  TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

thought  and  keen  discrimination  on  the  part  of  the  pu- 
pils. (2)  Expression. — The  oral  rendition  must  give 
evidence  that  the  children  have  grasped  the  thought 
and  respond  to  the  dominant  emotional  appeal.  (3) 
Appreciation. — Not  only  must  the  child  understand 
the  thought  and  feel  the  situation,  but  there  must  re- 
sult a  dynamic  interest  in  what  is  read  so  that  the  text 
becomes  a  source  of  keen  pleasure  to  which  he  looks 
forward  with  anxious  anticipation. 

How  to  Attain  Thought,  Expression  and  Appreciation  in 
Beading. — An  illustration  may  serve  to  make  clear  the 
meaning  of  these  three  aims  in  reading  and  to  indi- 
cate the  modes  of  attaining  them.  The  selection  read 
by  an  eighth-year  pupil  was  the  opening  of  Act  II, 
Scene  I,  of  "Ju^us  Caesar." 

ROME:    BRUTUS'S  ORCHARD. 
[Enter  BRUTUS.] 

BRUTUS. 

What,  Lucius !  ho !— 
I  cannot,  by  the  progress  of  the  stars, 
Give  guess  how  near  to  day. — Lucius,  I  say!— 
I  would  it  were  my  fault  to  sleep  so  soundly. — 
When,  Lucius,  when !  Awake,  I  say !    What,  Lucius ! 

If  the  reader  will  render  these  five  lines  in  a  uni- 
form loud  and  commanding  voice  he  will  have  a  fair 
reproduction  of  the  child's  reading,  which  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  teacher.  Had  the  lesson  developed  along 


TEACHING  CHILDREN   TO   READ 

the  following  lines,  the  three  dominant  aims  would 
have  been  attained: 

TEACHER:  Does  Brutus  think  that  Lucius  is 
asleep  ? 

PUPIL  :    Yes. 

TEACHER  :  Would  Brutus  ask  a  sleeping  person  for 
the  time? 

PUPIL:  No!  Brutus  must  have  thought  that  Lu- 
cius was  awake. 

TEACHER:  You  read  the  first  sentence  in  a  tone 
loud  enough  to  wake  Lucius.  How  do  you  think 
'Brutus  would  have  spoken  it? 

PUPIL:  In  an  ordinary  inquiring  tone.  (Pupil 
now  re-reads  these  lines.) 

TEACHER:    What  answer  did  Lucius  give? 

PUPIL  :    None. 

TEACHER  :    How  can  you  tell  ? 

PUPIL:    Brutus  repeats  "Lucius,  I  say!" 

TEACHER:  How  would  you  read  these  three 
words? 

PUPIL:  With  a  little  impatience.  (Pupil  reads 
them  thus.) 

TEACHER:  What  does  Brutus  evidently  now  dis- 
cover? 

PUPIL  :    That  Lucius  is  asleep. 

TEACHER  :    How  can  you  tell  ? 

PUPIL  :  Brutus  says,  "I  would  it  were  my  fault  to 
sleep  so  soundly." 

TEACHER  :    To  whom  does  he  say  this  ? 

PUPIL:    To  himself. 

188 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

TEACHER:  What  error  did  you  make  in  reading 
this  line? 

PUPIL:  I  read  it  in  a  loud  tone  as  if  it  were  meant 
for  Lucius.  (Pupil  re-reads  this  line  in  the  tones  of  a 
soliloquy. ) 

TEACHER  :  But  Brutus  must  know  the  time.  What 
will  he  do? 

PUPIL  :    He  will  wake  Lucius. 

TEACHER  :  Read  the  last  line  so  that  you  will  surely 
wake  Lucius! 

The  pupil  should  next  be  asked  to  re-read  the  entire 
passage  and  give  evidence  through  changing  expres- 
sion that  the  changing  thought,  hidden  before,  is  now 
clear,  and  that  there  is  an  appreciation  of  text  that 
seemed  flat  and  insipid. 

Aids  and  Suggestions  for  Specific  Difficulties. — i.  The 
Nature  of  the  Predominating  Questions. — The  method 
throughout  must  be  one  of  development,  free  from 
long,  didactic  explanations.  The  predominating  ques- 
tions must  be  such  as  will  elicit  thought,  appreciation, 
and  expression.  A  lesson  in  which  all  the  questions 
ask  for  meaning  of  words,  identification  of  names,  and 
for  facts  in  footnotes  is  unpardonable.  Why  should 
a  child  know  all  the  words  and  all  the  references  to 
local  heroes  and  saints  in  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake"? 
Through  arduous  drill,  these  facts  can  be  mastered, 
but  they  rob  the  masterpiece  of  its  spirit  and  leave  a 
mass  of  uninspiring  verbiage.  Questions  which  stir 
thought,  arouse  appreciation,  and  prompt  expression 
give  the  child  a  permanent  trinity  of  literary  values. 

189 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO  READ 

Questions  should  be  retrospective  as  well  as  prospec- 
tive. In  Act  II,  Cesar  boasts,  "The  Ides  of  March 
have  come."  Where  was  this  first  warning  given? 
Let  the  children  look  back  and  find  it  in  the  first  act. 
In  Act  I,  Scene  II,  the  conversation  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius  is  interrupted  by  shouts.  "What  is  the  cause 
for  the  shouting?"  Let  the  children  turn  a  few  pages 
and  infer  the  reason  for  the  shouting.  Act  II,  Scene 
I,  shows  Brutus  reading  letters  of  appeal  and  protest 
from  the  populace  of  Rome.  "Where  are  we  pre- 
pared for  these  letters?"  Let  the  children  look  back 
and  find  out.  Such  questions  afford  an  opportunity 
for  many  incidental  reviews  and  serve  to  unify  the  en- 
tire masterpiece. 

2.  Motorize  and  Dramatize  in  Oral  Reading. — • 
Psychology  teaches  that  every  emotion  is  accompanied 
by  some  physical  expression,  and  that  if  we  assume 
the  physical  characteristics  of  an  emotion  we  soon  ex- 
perience the  emotion  itself.  "If  you  are  sad  and  de- 
jected," says  James,  "smooth  the  brow,  brighten  the 
eye  .  .  .  speak  in  a  major  key,  pass  the  genial  com- 
pliment and  your  heart  must  be  frigid  indeed  if  it  does 
not  gradually  thaw."  The  readiest  means  at  our  com- 
mand for  enabling  the  child  to  enter  into  an  emotional 
situation  is  through  dramatization. 

In  reading  Father  Felician's  speech  to  his  frantic 
flock,  the  child  must  assume  a  stooping  posture  and 
speak  in  "accents  mournful."  How  can  he  feel  the 
thrill  of  his  plea  if  he  reads  it  in  loud  tones.  In  read- 
ing the  quarrel  scene  in  "Julius  Caesar,"  the  children 

190 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

must  show  their  anger  through  loud  and  hostile  tones. 
How  can  they  experience  Brutus' s  indignation  if  they 
read  it  in  calm,  dispassionate  tones?  In  reading  the 
opening  scene  of  "Ju^us  Caesar"  the  children  should 
imitate  the  painful  stoop  of  an  old  cobbler  or  the  re- 
spectful tones  of  the  old  shoemaker  as  he  answers  the 
officer,  Flavins.  If  the  pupil  who  reads  Flavins' s  com- 
mands will  assume  a  military  posture,  his  voice  will 
automatically  take  on  a  domineering  tone.  Unless  the 
children  enter  into  the  physical  being  of  the  character 
they  interpret,  they  cannot  respond  to  the  emotional 
appeal  of  any  dramatic  situation. 

3.  In  Difficult  Passages  the  Teacher  Must  Offer  the 
Model  of  Oral  Expression. — When  there  is  doubt  of 
the  pupils'  ability  to  read  a  given  selection  with  proper 
expression,  the  teacher  should  read  it  to  the  class  be- 
fore subjecting  it  to  inevitable  mutilations  by  the 
children.    In  all  difficult  oral  reading  the  pupils  should 
imitate  the  correct  rendition  by  the  teacher.     The 
model  in  oral  reading  must  be  used  as  frequently  and 
as  liberally  as  in  written  composition. 

4.  Use  and  Misuse  of  the  Dictionary. — Practice  in 
the  use  of  the  dictionary  should  be  reserved  exclusively 
for  home  work  and  seat  work;  it  should  never  be 
given  during  an  oral  recitation.    It  is  a  common  prac- 
tice for  teachers  to  stop  a  reading  lesson  while  a  word 
is  being  looked  up  in  the  dictionary  by  a  member  of 
the  class.    The  nervousness  which  results  from  a  con- 
sciousness that  the  class  is  watching  makes  the  child 
who  is  thus  victimized  take  much  longer  than  usual 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

and  in  his  excitement  he  reads  off  the  wrong  definition. 
The  spirit  and  the  forward  movement  of  the  whole 
lesson  are  killed  for  the  petty  interest  in  a  word. 
Despite  the  pedagogical  dictum,  "Never  tell  what  the 
child  can  find  out  for  itself,"  the  teacher  should  give 
the  meaning  of  the  word  and  make  no  more  ado. 

This  use  of  the  dictionary  in  oral  reading  not  only 
sacrifices  the  spirit  of  the  lesson,  but  it  (i)  discour- 
ages and  weakens  the  child's  power  to  get  the  mean- 
ing of  words  from  the  context.  Thus  the  child  reads, 
"My  midnight  orisons  said  o'er,  a  prayer  with  every 
bead  of  gold,  I'll  turn  to  rest  and  dream  no  more." 
"Orisons"  can  mean  only  one  thing,  "prayers" ;  so  why 
go  to  the  dictionary?  Few  words  have  fixed  values; 
they  derive  their  meaning  from  the  company  they  keep. 
(2)  A  dictionary  definition  may  often  be  useless. 
Thus  Ccesar  complains  about  flatterers,  who  with  "low 
crook'd  court'sies  and  base  spaniel  fawning." 
The  context  and  not  the  dictionary  will  give  Casals 
meaning.  The  method  of  deriving  meaning  through 
the  context  has  been  called  "the  insidious  practice  of 
guessing  at  words,"  but  it  has  a  place  in  class  work 
coordinate  with  the  dictionary  method. 

5.  Treatment  of  Allusions. — When  an  allusion  oc- 
curs it  is  unwise  to  call  up  a  number  of  children  and 
ask,  "What  is  meant  by  'murmuring  pines/  'Druids  of 
Eld/  The  fault  is  not  in  our  stars,  but  in  ourselves*  ?" 
Such  a  procedure  merely  discourages  children,  wastes 
time  and  retards  the  movement  of  the  lesson.  It  is 
always  best  to  begin  with  a  series  of  questions  de- 

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THE  TEACHING  OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

signed  to  make  clear  the  meaning  of  the  allusion.  If 
the  problem  in  question  is  "Murmuring  pines,"  the 
teacher  asks,  "How  does  a  person  feel  who  murmurs  ? 
Does  he  feel  that  way  when  he  whispers?  What  kind 
of  story  do  these  trees  have  to  tell?  Why  do  these 
trees  murmur?  What  is  the  value  of  the  word  mur- 
mur as  here  used?"  Or  he  may  ask,  "How  did 
the  old  soothsayer  prophesy?  What  is  meant  by  a 
'person's  star*  in  this  sense?  Hence  what  is  the 
meaning  of  The  fault  lies  not  in  our  stars  but  in  our- 
selves' ?" 

It  is  obvious  that  too  intensive  a  study  of  these  allu- 
sions undermines  interest  in  any  lesson.  The  teacher 
must  therefore  be  discriminative  and  take  up  only  such 
allusions  as  (i)  recur  frequently,  or  (2)  determine  the 
meaning  of  an  important  incident,  or  (3)  refer  to 
things  already  learned.  Examples  of  these  are :  "Ides 
of  March,"  "To  move  Olympus,"  "Druids  of  Eld." 
But  we  should  dismiss  from  consideration  such  allu- 
sions as  are  introduced  for  local  color  and  occur  there- 
fore only  in  this  one  connection.  "The  Feast  of  Luper- 
cal"  can  be  passed  over  without  any  more  explanation 
than  the  word  "Feast"  suggests.  To  dilate  on  the 
meaning  of  such  allusions  is  to  sacrifice  interest  in 
literature  for  useless  information. 

6.  Illustrative  Material. — While  the  child's  imagina- 
tion may  be  relied  upon  to  image  people,  incidents  and 
actions  which  reflect  in  part  the  day's  life,  it  is  impos- 
sible for  it  to  construct  situations  that  are  altogether 
new.  When  the  background  is  entirely  foreign  to  the 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

child,  illustrative  aids  are  absolutely  essential.  How 
can  city  children  image  the  beauties  of  the  lakes,  the 
rolling  hills,  the  towering  mountain  peaks  that  Scott 
describes  unless  we  bring  to  them  a  wide  and  varied 
collection  of  pictures  ?  Teachers  must  watch  for  pub- 
lic recitals  of  these  masterpieces  given  with  the  aid  of 
stereopticon  views.  In  addition  to  their  illustrative 
value,  these  recitals  give  the  children  new  interpreta- 
tions and  good  models  of  oral  reading. 

Devices  for  Emphasizing  the  Meaning  of  the  Master- 
piece as  a  Whole. — While  individual  parts  and  selec- 
tions need  explanation  and  elaboration,  attention  must 
be  given  to  the  meaning  and  spirit  of  the  masterpiece 
as  a  whole  or  to  its  larger  subdivisions.  What  shall 
we  do  to  emphasize  these? 

i.  Study  of  Plot  Structure. — The  study  of  plot 
structure  is  exceedingly  valuable  because  it  gives  the 
children  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
story  and  shows  them  the  dramatic  value  and  the  rela- 
tive position  of  each  incident  and  each  character.  The 
elements  in  the  study  of  plot  structure  include  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  main  story. 

2.  The  subsidiary  stories.    The  street  scene  which 
opens  the  first  act  of  "Julius  Caesar"  or  the  scene  im- 
mediately preceding  the  assassination  of  Casar  are 
illustrations  of  subsidiary  stories.     The  children  are 
led  to  a  consideration  of  the  number  of  these  stories, 
whether  each  is  germane  to  the  main  narrative,  and  the 
dramatic  value  of  each. 

194 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

3.  Where  is  the  climax? 

4.  Who  is  the  central  figure  around  whom  the  story 
is  woven? 

5.  Who  are  the  characters  that  are  necessary  to 
the  story?    Why  are  the  others  brought  in? 

6.  Classify  the  story.    Is  it  a  tragedy,  comedy,  epic? 
etc. 

7.  Why  is  prose  or  poetry  used  in  the  telling  of  the 
story? 

2.  Grasping  and  Recognizing  Fundamental  Themes. 
— A  second  means  of  emphasizing  the  meaning  of  the 
entire  masterpiece  is  by  constantly  seeking  to  recog- 
nize the  fundamental  themes  as  they  recur.  Early  in 
the  intensive  study  teacher  and  children  should  decide 
upon  the  central  thought  in  the  whole  story.  In 
"Evangeline,"  "The  beauty  and  strength  of  woman's 
devotion";  in  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  "The  free, 
rugged,  honest  life  of  the  Scotch  Highlanders,"  may 
be  mentioned  as  examples.  The  same  thought  can  be 
applied  in  character  study,  for  the  children  may  be  led 
to  recognize  the  dominant  note  in  each  personality. 
Thus  Brutus  becomes  synonymous  with  altruism  and 
high-mindedness,  while  Cassius  is  made  the  embodi- 
ment of  cunning  and  craftiness.  When  any  incident 
that  reveals  the  main  theme  of  the  masterpiece  or  a 
dominant  trait  of  character  is  portrayed,  it  should  be 
interpreted  and  its  symbolism  noted  by  all  the  children. 
This  constant  recognition  of  fundamental  themes 
brings  with  it  an  element  of  pleasure.  Just  as  the 
dominant  motif  is  struck  in  music  again  and  again,  so, 

195 


TEACHING   CHILDREN   TO  READ 

too,  in  literature,  a  motif  of  sentiment  is  introduced 
and  then  played  upon  in  various  keys  and  different 
strains.  Encouraging  children  to  recognize  these  fun- 
damental themes  as  they  recur  gives  them,  again,  a 
lasting  impression,  affords  opportunities  for  natural 
and  incidental  reviews,  and  serves  to  unify  the  whole 
masterpiece. 

3.  Versification. — A  final  means  of  bringing  out  the 
spirit  of  the  entire  selection  is  through  a  study  of 
versification.  To  introduce  the  children  to  the  techni- 
calities of  poetic  structure  is  most  unwise.  This  is 
the  mechanics  of  poetry  which,  for  children,  deadens 
its  spirit  and  robs  it  of  its  very  life.  The  versification 
that  is  taken  up  in  the  elementary  school  should  be 
studied  solely  "in  the  interest  of  sympathetic  and  ex- 
pressive oral  reading."  Scansion  must  not  be  a 
scheme  of  notation,  but  a  study  of  emphasis,  rhythm 
and  tempo.  Children  should  be  led  to  see  that  there 
is  a  relation  between  versification  and  music ;  that  the 
line  of  music  is  divided  into  measures,  while  the  line 
of  poetry  is  divided  into  feet;  that  each  measure  in 
music  has  its  accented  note  or  notes  and  each  foot  has 
its  accented  syllables;  that  music  conveys  emotions 
just  as  versification  intensifies  the  thought.  Let  the 
child  realize  that  even  though  he  knew  no  English  he 
would  nevertheless  feel  the  minor  strain  of  the  trag- 
edy of  "Evangeline"  by  listening  to 

This  is  the  |  forest  pfi  |  meval.    The  f  murmuring  J  pines  and 
tfie  |  hemlocks, 

while  the  lines, 

196 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 


hark  \  ami  whoopj  and  wifd  1  h~lloS 
No  rest   |  Benv6ir  |  lich's  ech  |  oCs  knew, 

suggest  at  once  the  excitement  and  the  speed  of  the 
chase  of  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake."  Elementary  school 
children  must  not  be  burdened  with  complex  termi- 
nology like  dactylic  hexameter  or  iambic  tetrameter. 
For  them,  the  sole  function  of  versification  is  to  give 
an  intenser  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  the  mes- 
sage of  the  masterpiece. 


THE   APPLICATION    07   TEE   MASTERPIECE 

Shall  There  Be  a  Third  Reading? — Many  courses  of 
study  prescribe  a  third  reading,  which  is  to  follow  the 
intensive  study  of  the  masterpiece.  The  arguments  ad- 
vanced for  this  procedure  assert  ( I )  that  children  ex- 
perience a  sense  of  joy  when  they  realize  their  in- 
creased power  of  literary  appreciation  and  interpre- 
tation; (2)  that  a  pleasant,  lasting  impression  is  thus 
given;  (3)  that  the  masterpiece  is  unified  in  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  by  this  re-reading.  In  the  method  that 
was  suggested  for  short  literary  selections  this  final 
reading  was  urged  because  it  gives  these  advantages. 
But  when  this  third  reading  is  applied  to  a  long  mas- 
terpiece, the  results  are  not  satisfactory  for  many 
reasons : 

I.  The  third  reading  takes  long  and  causes  inter- 
est to  wane.  Experience  shows  that  the  children  ex- 
hibit an  attitude  of  decided  indifference  to  this  read- 
ing. 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

2.  Since  this  reading  is  not  fraught  with  the  keen 
delight  that  characterizes  the  first  reading,  the  final 
effect  upon  the  pupils  is  bad. 

3.  There  is  no  need  of  reading  the  masterpiece  a 
third  time  for  the  sake  of  unity.     The  method  of  al- 
ternating  between   intensive   and   extensive   reading 
throughout  the  entire  masterpiece  serves  to  give  the 
child  a  consistent  and  complete  view  of  the  entire 
story.     The  third  reading  usually  becomes  a  lifeless 
and  useless  repetition  which  destroys  what  has  been 
built  up  so  laboriously.     The  teacher  will  find  that 
there  are  other  and  more  profitable  ways  of  reviewing 
the  masterpiece  and  having  the  children  express  its 
message  than  by  an  actual  re-reading.    We  will  con- 
sider some  of  the  procedures  which  give  better  results. 

Substitutes  for  the  Third  Reading — i.  Through  Sim- 
ple Dramatization  of  the  Masterpiece. — An  effective 
dramatization  does  not  require  an  elaborate  display 
of  costumes,  scenic  setting,  or  auxiliaries  of  any  kind. 
In  an  eighth-year  class  a  simple  but  pleasing  and 
suggestive  recital  of  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake"  was 
given  in  the  following  way:  One  of  the  children, 
who  was  master  of  ceremonies,  stepped  forward 
and  explained  that  this  was  a  story  dealing  with 
Scotch  highland  life,  and  outlined  in  a  very  few  words 
the  causes  which  led  to  the  action  in  the  story.  He 
told  of  the  chase  in  which  the  hunter  pursued  the 
stag  until  his  steed  sank  exhausted.  He  continued, 
"The  hunter  grieved  at  this  misfortune  to  his  faithful 
horse,  then  addressed  it  as  follows."  At  this  point 

198 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

one  of  the  boys  of  the  class  who  was  responsible  for 
this  selection  stepped  forward  and  recited  the  hunter's 
appreciation  of  his  steed.  The  first  boy  then  resumed 
his  story,  telling  a  brief  part  in  his  own  words,  until 
he  came  to  the  next  vital  part,  which  was  recited  by 
another  pupil  to  whom  it  had  been  assigned.  In  this 
way  the  entire  masterpiece  was  completed.  The  whole 
story  was  rehearsed,  but  the  newness  of  the  procedure 
sustained  the  interest  throughout.  All  of  the  children 
took  part  and  much  of  the  masterpiece  was  committed 
to  memory. 

2.  Through  Elaborate  Dramatisations. — The  sec- 
ond means  of  reviewing  the  masterpiece  is  through  the 
elaborate  dramatization  of  the  significant  parts.  While 
this  work  of  preparing  costumes  and  training  in  care- 
ful dramatic  rendition  is  commendable,  it  is  a  question 
worth  much  consideration  whether  the  time  and  effort 
of  both  teacher  and  pupils  are  commensurate  with  the 
benefits  and  delights  which  the  children  derive  from 
this  work.    Then,  too,  we  must  notice  that  in  most  of 
these  dramatizations  only  a  few  of  the  children  take 
part  and  thus  receive  the  benefits  which  participation 
in  such  work  would  naturally  give.     In  addition,  it 
must  be  observed  that  only  those  children  who  speak 
well  and  are  unabashed  in  the  face  of  an  audience  are 
usually  selected  for  this  exhibition.     These  elaborate 
dramatizations  are  "star  performances'*  and  hardly 
merit  a  place  as  class  work. 

3.  Through    Memorisation    and    Recitation. — A 
good  means  of  reviewing  and  applying  the  master- 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

piece  is  to  require  the  children  to  memorize  vital  and 
striking  parts.  The  teacher  knows  that  memorizing 
literary  selections  has  its  educational  results :  ( i )  It 
enriches  the  vocabulary;  (2)  it  develops  a  storehouse 
of  beautiful  expressions;  (3)  it  gives  the  child  a  num- 
ber of  lofty  sentiments  artistically  expressed;  (4) 
it  leaves  the  child  a  permanent  store  of  literary  gems 
which  grow  in  beauty  and  richness  as  the  mind  gains 
in  insight  and  appreciation.  But  these  reasons  form 
motive  for  the  teacher  and  not  for  the  child.  Pupils 
memorize  what  is  assigned  from  a  sense  of  fear  be- 
cause of  the  authority  which  is  vested  in  the  teacher. 

All  memorization  by  the  pupils  should  be  prompted 
by  an  urgent  motive.  Let  the  children  decide  what 
parts  of  the  masterpiece  they  want  to  memorize.  The 
choice  usually  falls  upon  those  selections  which  were 
studied  intensively  and  appreciatively.  The  pupils  must 
then  be  led  to  feel  that  effective  dramatization  of  their 
favorite  selections  is  impossible  unless  they  memorize 
them.  Call  up  two  children  and  ask  them  to  go 
through  the  scene  between  Brutus  and  Lucius.  Chil- 
dren delight  in  these  dramatizations  but  they  soon  real- 
ize that  their  dramatic  presentation  lacks  force  and 
conviction,  because  they  must  rely  on  the  printed  page 
for  every  word  and  every  cue.  Now  there  is  a  motive 
for  memorizing  this  selection  and  the  children  set  to 
work  with  a  rational  impulse. 

4.  Through  Oral  Compositions. — Another  means 
of  applying  the  subject-matter  studied  in  the  master- 
piece is  through  frequent  oral  composition.  The  story 

200 


THE  TEACHING  OF  A  MASTERPIECE 

should  be  seized  upon  as  a  good  means  for  giving  the 
children  practice  for  talking  convincingly  and  consecu- 
tively on  a  topic  that  they  know.  The  story  now 
means  much  to  the  child  and  he  enjoys  telling  it. 
Topics  like  the  following  can  be  assigned  for  these  oral 
discussions : 

Brutus  and  the  conspirators  are  in  debate ;  the  latter 
favor  the  death  of  Antony,  but  the  former  is  opposed 
to  unnecessary  murder.  Argue  the  wisdom  of  each 
side. 

What  traits  in  the  characters  of  Antony  and  of 
Brutus  can  be  inferred  from  their  respective  speeches 
to  the  Roman  populace? 

What  titles,  other  than  "Junus  Caesar* '  would  you 
suggest  for  this  play?  Defend  your  suggestion! 

Children  should  be  trained  to  reflect  a  moment  on 
the  given  topic  and  then  make  their  statements,  giving 
support  for  their  contentions  by  citing  specific  evidence 
from  the  masterpiece.  Progress  will  be  slow;  with 
many  children  the  work  will  be  discouraging  at  the  be- 
ginning, but  the  advantages  of  such  work,  begun  in  the 
middle  of  the  school  course  and  continued  persistently 
through  the  elementary  course  are  far-reaching. 

5.  Through  Ethical  Lessons. — In  an  earlier  discus- 
sion a  detailed  analysis  of  the  ethical  value  of  the  mas- 
terpiece was  made.    Mere  mention  of  the  topic  must,, 
therefore,  suffice  at  this  point. 

6.  Through  Examinations. — Regular  written  ex- 
aminations are  excellent  means  of  having  children  re- 
view and  apply  the  content  of  their  literary  studies,  but 

201 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

careful  attention  must  be  given  to  their  organization. 
These  examinations  should  be  made  up  of  two  distinct 
parts: 

Part  I. — To  test  the  knowledge  the  child  has  gained 
of  the  masterpiece:  Questions  in  this  part  of  the  test 
should  be  designed  to  test  the  child's  knowledge  of  the 
work  that  was  covered  in  class.  As  types  of  such 
questions  we  may  submit :  (i )  What  is  the  meaning  of 
"orisons,"  "low  crook'd  courtesies"?  (2)  What  figure 
of  speech  in  the  following?  (3)  Who  said  "Friends, 
Romans,  countrymen,  .  .  ."?  (4)  What  is  the 
value  of  Scene  I  in  Act  I  ? 

Part  II. — The  test  for  increased  power  of  interpre- 
tation and  appreciation:  The  second  part  of  the  test 
is  of  a  nature  altogether  different.  As  a  result  of  re- 
peated intensive  studies  it  is  hoped  that  the  child  will 
gain  more  than  the  definite  specific  information;  that 
the  child  will  grow  in  the  power  of  independent  inter- 
pretation and  develop  a  standard  of  literary  criticism. 
The  answers  to  the  questions  in  this  part  of  the  test 
must  call  for  judgment,  for  keen  analysis,  and  for  ap- 
preciation. Allow  the  children  to  have  their  books 
open  as  they  answer  the  question.  Let  us  assume  that 
the  children  have  read  silently  the  scene  in  which  An- 
tony asks  for  permission  to  bury  Casar  and  then 
speak  after  Brutus;  with  the  aid  of  their  books,  dic- 
tionaries, etc.,  the  pupils  are  required  to  answer  the 
following:  Point  out  three  traits  of  Antony's  char- 
acter and  three  of  Brutus' s  that  are  revealed  in  this 
scene.  Give  evidence  for  the  traits  you  select. 

202 


THE   TEACHING  OF  A   MASTERPIECE 

Further  questions  suitable  for  this  part  of  the  test 
are: 

Name  some  practical  errors  that  Brutus  made. 
What  light  do  they  throw  on  his  character? 

Ccesar  is  killed  so  early  in  the  play.  Would  you 
have  called  the  play  "Juh'us  Caesar"?  Justify  your 
answer  or  your  choice  of  a  title. 

The  ghost  of  C&sar  appears  to  the  gentle  Brutus. 
Had  you  written  the  play  would  you  have  made  it  so 
appear  or  would  you  have  caused  the  ghost  to  appear 
to  the  crafty  Cassius? 

Evangeline  finds  Gabriel  as  he  is  dying.  Would  you 
have  changed  the  ending  in  any  way?  Justify  your 
answer. 

But,  for  some  inexplicable  reason,  this  type  of  ex- 
amination is  not  usual.  Year  in  and  year  out  the 
same  stupid,  insignificant  questions  are  asked — ques- 
tions which  test  the  memory  of  petty  facts  or  the  mean- 
ing of  unusual  words.  If  the  objects  of  intensive  read- 
ing are  (i)  thought,  (2)  expression,  (3)  appreciation, 
then  the  examination  questions  must  test  for  these 
ends.  On  examining  recent  test  papers  given  by  prin- 
cipals, superintendents,  or  teachers'  journals  one  is 
confronted  by  the  following: 

1.  Where  was  the  great  battle  between  the  Trium- 
virs and  the  Conspirators  fought  ?    Locate  the  place. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Feast  of  Lupercal"  ? 

3.  From  what  source  did  Shakespeare  obtain  his 
version  of  "Julius  Caesar"? 

4.  Name  the  author  of  "Miles  Standish."    What 

203 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  READ 

is  his  nationality?    Name  another  work.    About  what 
colony  is  it?    When  do  the  events  take  place? 

5.  What  sort  of  poem  is  "Evangeline"  ?    What  is 
Its  meter?    What  sections  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  mentioned?     In  what  city  does  the  last 
scene  take  place?     What  bay  is  near  the  village? 
What  promontory? 

6.  Who  is  the  author  of  the  "Lady  of  the  Lake"? 
Where  born  ?    What  two  important  events  took  place 
in  America  at  the  time  of  his  birth  ? 

What  Shall  Literature  Give  the  Elementary  School 
Graduate? — Those  principals  and  supervisors  who  for- 
mulated these  questions  failed  because  they  neglected 
to  take  cognizance  of  the  vital  aims  that  should  govern 
the  teaching  of  literature.  They  failed  to  realize  that 
the  study  of  these  masterpieces  must  give  children  an 
acquaintanceship  with  the  best  literary  forms,  must 
develop  a  standard  by  means  of  which  they  can  judge 
literary  merit,  must  inculcate  a  love  for  the  spirit  and 
the  message  of  true  literature,  and  must  develop  ability 
for  independent  literary  interpretation.  Good  teaching 
of  literature,  therefore,  gives  the  child  a  permanent 
treasure  of  delightful  memories  and  ushers  him  into  a 
new  world  where  stirring  scenes  and  sweet  voices  lead 
him  to  a  realization  that  he  is  living  a  fuller  and  richer 
life. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.    The  Teaching  of  Eng- 
lish, 155-187.    Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
204 


THE   TEACHING   OF   A   MASTERPIECE 

CORSON,  HIRAM.  Aims  of  Literary  Studies.  Macmillan 
Co. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  English,  chaps.  VII,  VIII,  IX. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  The  Elementary  School  Course  in 
English,  42-53. 

McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.  Special  Method  in  English 
Classics.  Macmillan  Co. 


APPENDIX 

RECENT  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  READING  TO 
BEGINNERS 

The  last  three  years  have  witnessed  the  development 
of  a  large  number  of  new  reading  systems.  These 
are,  in  the  main,  in  harmony  with  the  best  principles 
of  modern  methodology,  and  achieve  skilful  blending 
of  the  effective  devices  that  are  characteristic  of  their 
predecessors,  but  they  offer  nothing  new  to  existing 
theory  or  practice  governing  the  teaching  of  reading 
to  primary  children.  The  table  for  classification  of 
reading  systems  which  is  offered  in  Chapters  V  and 
VI  still  serves,  therefore,  as  a  system  for  classifying 
these  new  reading  methods. 

The  Edson-Laing-  Readers.1 — Underlying  Principle. — 
This  reading  system,  formulated  by  Andrew  W.  Ed- 
son  and  Miss  Mary  E.  Laing,  is  conceived  in  the  en- 
deavor to  make  reading  the  "apprehension  of  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  expressed  on  a  written  or  printed 
page."  The  attempt  is  made  to  elevate  reading  above 
word  mastery,  or  mere  oral  rendition,  by  concentrating 
on  three  ends,  viz. :  ( i )  Early  facility  in  the  art  of 
reading,  i.  e.,  instantaneous  recognition  of  words,  the 

1  EDSON  AND  LAING.  The  Edson  and  Laing  Readers.  Benj.  H. 
Sanborn  &  Co.,  1913. 

206 


APPENDIX 

acquisition  of  the  thought  they  convey,  and  the  intel- 
ligent expression  of  this  thought;  (2)  the  formation 
of  a  reading  habit;  (3)  the  cultivation  of  a  literary 
sense. 

Organization  of  the  Edson-Laing  Readers.— i.  Reading 
for  Thought. — This  system  of  reading  develops  its 
reading  lessons  through  eight  steps,  which  may  be 
summed  up  briefly  as  follows: 

a.  Explanation  of  the  story:    Words,  characters, 
customs  and  facts  necessary  for  the  comprehension 
of  the  story  that  is  to  supply  the  reading  text  are  ex- 
plained by  the  teacher,  either  verbally  or  through  ob- 
jective devices  and  pictorial  representations. 

b.  Recitation  by  the  teacher:     The  story  is  told 
and  retold  by  the  teacher  until  the  children  either 
know  it  memoriter  or  have  developed  a  perfect  mas- 
tery of  all  its  parts  in  natural  sequence.    The  authors 
are  too  optimistic  at  this  point  of  their  system,  for 
they  tell  us  that  "children  never  weary  of  hearing  the 
teacher  repeat  a  story,  a  jingle  or  a  simple  poem." 
They  fail  to  impress  the  teacher  with  the  need  of  the 
enthusiastic,  animated  and  skilful  work  required  to 
maintain  children's  interest  in  the  stories  and  rhymes 
that  are  to  be  used  as  reading  texts  in  these  introduc- 
tory lessons. 

c.  Recitation  by  the  pupil:    The  repetition  of  the 
story  is  continued  until  the  children  have  mastered  the 
details  and  the  wording  of  the  tale. 

d.  Questions  by  the  teacher: 

e.  Dramatization:     To  make  the  learning  of  the 

207 


APPENDIX 

basal  story  more  rapid,  and  to  sustain  the  interest  in 
it,  the  teacher  questions  children  on  the  characters, 
the  steps  in  the  story,  and  the  sequence  of  events.  The 
dramatization  of  such  parts  as  lend  themselves  to  this 
form  of  motor  expression  helps  to  keep  interest  alive 
and  to  impress  the  story  on  the  minds  of  the  children. 

f.  Drill  on  words,  phrases  and  word-groups:    With 
this  thought  background,  the  child  is  now  taught  to 
recognize  words,  phrases  and  word-groups  that  occur 
in  the  story.    The  teacher  recites  the  sentence  in  which 
the  word  or  phrase  to  be  taught  occurs,  and  then  writes 
that  word  or  phrase  on  the  blackboard  a  number  of 
times.    All  this  work  is  done  in  script.     It  takes  two 
or  three  weeks  to  teach  the  words  and  word-groups 
that  occur  in  the  first  story.    At  the  end  of  that  period 
the  children  can  recognize  instantaneously  the  follow- 
ing words: 

the  that  cow 

key  held  tossed 

to  rat  grass 

King's  gnawed  fed 

garden  cat  ground 

I  caught  grew 

sell  dog  will 

string  chased  buy 

g.  The  story  written  on  the  board. 

h.  The  story  read  by  the  pupils:  The  entire  story 
is  now  read  by  the  children  from  the  board.  Every 
word  contained  in  the  story  is  now  known,  and  fluent, 

208 


APPENDIX 

thoughtful  reading  is  made  the  aim  of  these  lessons. 
Books  are  usually  not  given  to  the  pupils  before  the 
end  of  the  first  month,  when  a  number  of  selections 
has  been  read. 

2.  The  Work  in  Phonics. — The  work  in  phonics  is 
designed  to  develop  accurate  enunciation  and  to  train 
the  children  to  read  new  words.  After  a  few  selec- 
tions have  been  read  from  the  board,  and  the  children 
have  mastered  a  stock  of  about  sixty  sight  words, 
phonics  is  introduced.  The  early  work  in  phonics  is 
not  a  preparation  for  the  day's  reading  lesson,  but 
usually  comes  after  it,  when  the  words  to  be  phonically 
analyzed  and  synthesized  are  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the 
children.  The  usual  method  is  followed;  the  words 
J'sell,"  "make,"  "no,"  "ran,"  "king,"  "fed,"  etc.,  are 
made  to  yield  the  phonograms  sf  ell;  m,  ake;  ny  o;  r, 
an;  k,  ing;  etc.,  by  a  process  of  slow  utterance.  New 
words,  e.  g.,  "sake,"  "sing,"  "Nell,"  are  produced  by 
phonic  synthesis.  In  phonic  work  in  vowels,  diacriti- 
cal marks  are  employed  as  aids  in  identifying  the 
various  sounds. 

Estimate  of  the  Edson-Laing  Beading  System. — (i)' 
The  reading  system  falls  short  of  being  a  pure  story 
method.  To  avoid  the  memorized  reading  heard 
in  so  many  classes  taught  by  those  who  are  inexperi- 
enced in  teaching  reading  to  beginners,  this  method 
reverts  to  word  recognition  and  word  reading.  Despite 
its  emphasis  on  reading  as  a  process  of  thought  acqui- 
sition, it  confines  the  introductory  reading  lessons  to 
reading  words  in  lists  or  from  perception  cards. 

209 


APPENDIX 

(2)  The  successive  readers  are  developed  around 
central  themes;  thus,  the  connecting  thought  in  the 
First  Reader  is  "Busy  Folks" ;  in  the  Second  Reader, 
"Lend   a   Hand,"   kindness;   in   the   Third   Reader, 
"Neighbors,"  social  service;  in  the  Fourth  Reader, 
"Working  Together,"  cooperation  and  fellowship;  in 
the  Fifth  Reader,  opportunity.      These  readers  are 
sound  in  purpose,  but  it  is  not  clear  how  many  of  the 
stories   contribute  towards  the   central  theme;  they 
teach  other  ethical  lessons  more  clearly  than  the  one 
they  are  meant  to  emphasize. 

(3)  The  cumulative  tale  is  overemphasized.     The 
authors  justify  the  repetitive  tale  on  the  ground  that 
it  affords  natural  repetitions,  simple  gradation,  an  in- 
teresting round  of  new  turns  to  the  same  story,  rhyth- 
mical language,  and  a  gradual  increase  in  vocabulary. 
Nevertheless,  the  cumulative  story  must  not  be  the 
sole  literary  diet  of  any  reader. 

(4)  The  content  of  the  readers  is,  in  the  main,  the 
traditional  reading  matter. 

The  authors  tell  us  that  one  of  the  three  distinctive 
features  of  this  reading  system  is  the  absence  of  the 
usual  primer,  for  the  reading  begins  with  a  First 
Reader.  But  the  blackboard  work  which  is  substituted 
is  not  of  superior  reading  quality,  for  we  see  that  it 
reduces  itself  to  mere  word  reading  and  word  recog- 
nition. The  content  of  the  First  Reader  often  lacks 
the  flexibility  possessed  by  the  text  in  the  McCloskey 
Method  or  the  "Progressive  Road  to  Reading."  The 
cumulative  tale  in  blank  verse  does  not  lend  itself  to 

210 


APPENDIX 

I 

as  many  variations  as  it  does  when  in  good  prose.    The 

first  sentence  in  the  first  story  is: 

,The  key,  the  key, 
To  the  King's  garden! 

The  second  is  : 

I  sell  the  key 

To  the  King's  garden. 

Almost  no  variations  are  possible  in  these  construc- 
tions. Contrast  this  with  the  flexibility  offered  in  the 
introductory  sentence  of  the  other  methods  mentioned  : 

A  kid,  a  kid  my  father  bought 
'For  two  pieces  of  money. 

A  kid,  a  kid. 


can  be  turned  into 

My  father  bought  a  kid  for  two  pieces  of  money. 
For  two  pieces  of  money  my  father  bought  a  kid. 
A  kid  my  father  bought  for  two  pieces  of  money. 

(5)'  The  Manual  accompanying  this  method  is  very 
helpful  to  teachers,  for  it  is  replete  with  sound  advice. 
The  sections  dealing  with  "Silent  Reading"  and  "Ex- 
pression in  Reading"  contain  suggestions  of  undoubted 
worth. 

The  Edson-Laing  reading  system,  as  a  whole,  is 
211 


APPENDIX 

modern  in  aim  and  purpose,  although  it  strays  from 
the  path  in  specific  instances  during  the  development 
of  its  procedure. 

The  Merrill  Readers.1 — i.  Guiding  Aim. — A  reading 
system  that  will  commend  itself  to  teachers  and  super- 
visors who  have  strong  preferences  for  initial  reading 
matter  that  appeals  to  the  child's  rhythmic  sense  is 
the  method  developed  in  the  Merrill  Readers.  Its 
guiding  aim  is  to  develop  in  each  child  an  appreciative 
attitude  towards  literature  through  the  reading  of  text 
that  has  real  literary  value.  The  primer  gives  the  child 
his  favorite  rhymes  and  jingles  from  "Mother  Goose" 
and  other  old  nursery  books.  The  First  Reader  adds 
folk  tales  and  fables  to  this  reading  content,  while 
the  Second  Reader  enriches  it  by  introducing  the  child 
to  favorite  stories  in  prose,  verse  and  dialogue.  The 
reading  matter  is  usually  more  than  a  slightly  modified 
repetition  of  text  generally  found  in  other  readers. 
The  authors  have  avoided  the  usual  danger  attending 
an  initial  reading  text  taken  from  ancient  rhymes  and 
folk  lore,  viz.,  the  introduction  of  words  and  expres- 
sions altogether  out  of  the  vocabulary  of  present  speech 
and  children's  language. 

2.  Introducing  the  Reading  Lessons. — The  class  is 
given  a  picture  which  shows  two  children  on  a  "see- 
saw." The  conversation  which  ensues  introduces  the 
words  "see-saw,"  "up,"  "down,"  etc.  As  these  words 
occur  they  are  put  on  the  board.  The  discussion 

1  FRANKLIN  B.  DYER  AND  MARY  J.  BRADY.  The  Merrill  Read- 
ers. Chas.  E.  Merrill  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1915. 

212 


APPENDIX 
then  turns  to  the  probable  exclamation  of  the  child, 

"See-Saw !    See-Saw ! 
Here  we  go  up  and  down. 
See-Saw !     See-Saw !" 

and  the  children  learn  this  part  of  the  rhyme.  The 
"see-saw"  is  then  conceived  as  a  train,  the  children  on 
it  as  being  bound  for  a  distant  place.  The  teacher 
then  adds,  "This  is  the  way  to  .  .  .?  What  place 
sounds  like  down?"  If  town  is  not  suggested,  she  gives 
it  herself.  The  class  now  repeats  the  entire  rhyme, 
and  every  pupil  knows  it  by  heart  before  the  end  of 
the  lesson.  The  jingle  is  now  played,  dramatized,  re- 
cited, sung  until  its  rhymes  and  its  music  are  caught. 

In  the  succeeding  reading  lessons  the  teacher  puts 
selected  phrases  on  the  board,  and  the  class  learns  to 
recognize  them  at  sight.  Lines  i  and  3  are  learned 
during  the  initial  conversation  lesson,  for  "See-Saw" 
is  put  on  the  board  over  the  illustration  of  the  text. 
Here  we  go  and  up  and  down  are  put  on  the  board, 
and  the  children  learn  them  by  locating  them  in  the 
original  rhyme.  These  phrases  are  written  one  under 
the  other,  and  the  children  are  practiced  in  recognizing 
them  by  the  same  kind  of  comparison  with  the  original 
four-line  jingle  until  they  can  read  them  at  sight  with- 
out aid.  The  individual  words  are  now  sought  (i) 
by  reference  to  their  respective  place  in  the  phrase; 
(2)  by  comparison  of  a  word,  e.  g.,  "down/*  written 
on  a  cardboard,  with  the  phrase  in  which  it  occurs  on 

213 


APPENDIX 

the  board.  After  sufficient  drill  is  given,  these  words 
are  recognized  instantly  when  displayed  on  flash  cards 
or  perception  cards.  Follow-up  sentences  are  now  read 
by  the  children.  The  words  they  know  become  a 
temporary  reading  vocabulary,  and  sentences  not  seen 
before  are  read  from  the  board.  Thus, 

We  go  up !    We  go  down ! 

We  go  to  town. 

This  is  the  way  we  go  up  and  down 

can  now  be  read.  The  reading  must  not  be  word  recog- 
nition, but  intelligent  and  expressive  rendition  of  a 
thought.  New  rhymes  are  taught  in  the  same  way, 
reading  vocabulary  increases  in  the  same  natural  proc- 
esses, and  reading  for  thought  gradually  develops. 

3.  Teaching  the  Mechanics  of  Reading. — The  work 
in  phonics  is  sought  not  as  an  end  in  itself,  but  purely 
as  an  aid  in  independent  reading.  More  attention  is 
given  to  ear  training  as  a  preliminary  to  phonic  drills 
than  in  most  methods.  The  Merrill  Reading  System 
starts  its  work  in  phonics  with  a  clear  recognition  that 
in  a  cosmopolitan  school  population  many  children's 
auditory  perception  of  a  sound  is  dulled  by  the  fre- 
quency with  which  incorrect  sound  has  been  heard. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  rhyming  exercises  are  made 
so  important  a  part  of  the  work  of  early  reading.  The 
teacher  asks,  "What  word  sounds  like  Horner?"  and 
obtains  the  expected  answer,  corner,  because  of  the 
reading  lessons  on  Mother  Goose  Rhymes  that  have 

214 


APPENDIX 

preceded  this  formal  work.  Children  are  practiced  not 
only  in  ready  recall  of  words  that  rhyme  with  thumb, 
Peep,  Cole,  Muffett,  etc.,  but  also  in  reconstructing 
the  rhymes, 

He  put  in  his  thumb 

And  pulled  out  a  plum 

Little  Bo  Peep 
Has  lost  her  sheep 

Old  King  Cole 

Was  a  merry  old  soul 

Little  Miss  Muffett 
Sat  on  a  tuffet 

By  a  similar  procedure,  long  lists  are  given  by  the 
children  of  words  that  rhyme  with  will,  fall,  fight,  day, 
or  that  begin  like  the  word  cake,  ^un,  etc.  These  exer- 
cises are  continued  until  auditory  perceptions  are 
sharpened  and  the  children  have  developed  an  elemen- 
tary "feel"  for  similar  sounds. 

The  technical  work  in  phonics  is  an  outgrowth  of 
this  ear  training.  To  teach  any  initial  sound  like  /  in 
lake,  d  in  day,  m  in  man,  etc.,  or  any  phonogram  like 
ake,  ay,  or  an,  the  list  of  words  that  rhyme  with  the 
specific  sound  is  recalled  and  isolated  by  a  process  of 
comparison.  The  teacher  calls  for  words  that  sound 
like  lake.  The  class  offers  cake,  take,  make,  bake,  etc., 
because  it  has  a  clear  auditory  image  of  the  sound  of 
ake.  The  teacher  then  shows  the  symbol,  ake,  which 
represents  the  sound  in  question.  The  authors  of  the 

215 


APPENDIX 

Merrill  Readers  are  opposed  to  the  prevailing  method 
of  isolating  a  phonogram  by  a  process  of  exaggerated 
slowness  of  utterance.  Thus,  in  most  reading  systems, 
lake  is  sounded  as  ///  aaake,  and  the  children  hear  an 
English  word  read  as  it  must  never  be  spoken  in  actual 
speech.  By  the  method  of  phonic  comparison  described 
above,  children  are  taught  the  sound  of  initial  conso- 
nants ;  important  phonograms  that  make  common  mon- 
osyllabic words ;  combined  consonants,  e.  g.,  sh,  ch,  th, 
wh;  and  double  consonants,  like  st.  sp. 

The  vowel  values  are  taught  through  natural  asso- 
ciation.   Thus,  assuming  that  the  children  can  read 

rode  fine  late  cute 

rose  fill  lame  cure 

rope  lake  cube 

they  are  told  that  e  at  the  end  tells  me  to  say  o de,  ose, 
ope,  ine,  ate,  ute,  ube.  To  teach  the  short  vowels, 
children  are  drilled  in  instantaneous  recognition  of  an, 
in,  on,  up,  red.  These  are  kept  on  a  chart  before  the 
class  all  the  time.  The  child  learns  the  short  vowel 
by  comparing  it  with  his  standard;  hence  the  word 
hen  is  compared  with  red,  and  is  read  hen;  the  word 
us  is  compared  with  up,  and  is  read  us.  All  words  that 
do  not  follow  these  simple  rules  for  long  and  short 
vowels,  e.  g.,  give,  are  taught  as  sight  words.  By 
methods  similar  to  these  that  we  have  outlined  the 
class  learns  the  "helpers/5  ar,  ir,  er,  or,  ier;  the  equiva- 
lents of  long  vowels,  e.  g.,  ai  and  ay  for  a,  ea  and  ee- 

216 


APPENDIX 

for  e,  oa  for  o,  y  and  ie  for  i;  and  finally  the  unclassi- 
fied sounds  of  oy,  oi,  au,  ou,  aw,  ow,  ew,  etc. 

4.  Estimate  of  the  Merrill  Readers. — From  this 
brief  analysis,  the  student  readily  sees  that  the  Merrill 
Readers  embody  those  principles  commonly  accepted 
as  progressive  and  sound  in  modern  pedagogy,  and 
must  be  grouped  with  the  thought  methods  in  the  last 
column  of  the  table  of  reading  methods.  The  books 
are  attractive  in  print,  delightful  in  illustration,  and 
agreeable  in  content.  Although  no  new  principle  of 
teaching  reading  to  beginners  is  evolved  by  the  Mer- 
rill Readers,  the  authors  have  produced  a  system 
sound  in  its  conception  and  effective  in  its  procedure. 

Elson-Eunkel  Method.1—- 1.  Underlying  Principle. — 
The  Elson-Runkel  reading  method  puts  itself  on  record 
in  the  very  first  sentence  as  aiming  to  be  a  thought 
content  system.  To  the  authors  of  this  method,  inter- 
esting material  rich  in  story  element  is  the  chief  factor 
in  teaching  children  to  read.  They  define  reading  as 
the  art  of  interpreting  the  thought  of  the  printed  page. 
Stories  that  are  complete  in  plot  are  urged  as  the  start- 
ing point  How  well  the  method  succeeds  is  shown  in 
the  first  story  that  the  child  learns  to  read: 

THE  CAT'S  DINNER 

See  the  cat  The  cat  said,  "Come  kit- 

tens! 
See  the  kittens.  Come  to  the  barn." 

*WM.  H.  ELSON  AND  LAURA  E.  RUNKEL.  The  Elson-Runkel 
Primer.  Scott  Foresman  &  Co.,  1914. 

217 


APPENDIX 

Come,  cat,  come!  The  cat  went  to  the  barn. 

Come,  kittens,  come!  The  kittens  went,  too. 

The  cat  saw  a  bird.  The  cat  saw  a  mouse. 

The  kittens  saw  it,  too.  The  mouse  saw  the  cat. 

The  bird  saw  the  cat.  The  mouse  ran  away. 

It  saw  the  kittens,  too.  The  cat  went  to  the  house. 

The  bird  flew  away.  The  kittens  went,  too. 

We  said,  "Come,  cat,  come ! 
Come,  kittens,  come!" 
We   gave   them   milk    for 
dinner. 

The  initial  story  and  the  few  that  follow  it  are  writ- 
ten down  to  the  child ;  they  are  artificial  in  form,  pain- 
fully simplified,  and  hopelessly  stilted.  Not  all  of 
the  primer  is  as  far  from  the  basic  principle  of  the 
method  as  these  introductory  lessons,  but  the  initial 
reading  experience  of  the  child  must  be  fraught  with 
pleasure — the  pleasure  that  comes  from  a  natural 
story,  told  in  language  at  least  on  the  same  level  as 
the  child's  power  of  expression. 

2.  The  Development  of  the  Method. — We  have  con- 
sidered too  many  methods  already  not  to  recognize  the 
type  of  development  here  used.  First,  the  teacher  tells 
a  longer  story  to  offer  a  background  rich  in  thought. 
The  illustrations  are  useful  as  well  as  ornamental,  for 
they  are  descriptive  of  the  text.  The  book  is  amply 
illustrated,  so  that  the  child  is  given  the  meaning  of 
ideas  that  may  not  be  known.  The  purpose  of  the 
teacher's  story  and  the  illustrations  is  to  give  each 
child  a  rational  basis  of  imagery  and  experience  for 

218 


APPENDIX 

a  true  comprehension  of  the  story  in  the  primer. 

Dramatization  is  the  second  step.  By  this  time  the 
children  know  the  story  and  understand  the  allusions 
and  the  meaning  of  terms.  The  third  step  consists 
of  learning  to  recognize  words,  sentences,  and  phonetic 
elements.  The  first  time  a  word  is  seen  it  is  taught 
as  a  sight  word.  Thus,  if  can  is  a  sight  word,  the 
next  word  having  the  same  phonetic  characteristics, 
viz.,  an,  will  be  taught  in  comparison  with  the  original, 
and  the  phonogram  an  is  thus  made  known.  Children 
then  read  sentences  after  they  give  evidence  that  they 
have  attained  sufficient  power  with  words  and  phrases. 

The  fourth  step  is  the  final  step.  Now  the  children 
are  given  the  primers,  and  they  read  the  summaries,  a 
sample  of  which  is  given  above. 

We  see  then  that  these  four  steps  simply  repeat  the 
procedure  of  so  many  other  methods. 

3.  Summary  of  the  Elson-Runkel  Method. — This 
reading  system  has  a  complete  equipment,  and  is  rich 
in  suggestion  for  varied  and  vigorous  phonetic  and 
word  drills,  profitable  seatwork  and  correlating  exer- 
cises. It  is  well  organized;  its  illustrative  material  is 
not  only  decorative,  but  also  instructive,  for  it  enables 
the  child  to  imagine  what  would  otherwise  be  mean- 
ingless. 

But  the  method  presents  certain  shortcomings.  To 
begin  with,  it  is  not  a  content  method.  Not  the  story 
that  is  told  by  the  teacher,  but  the  story  that  is  read 
by  the  children,  makes  a  reading  system  a  content 
method.  The  children  learn  to  read  word  by  word, 

219 


APPENDIX 

then  by  phrase  recognition,  and  finally  the  sentence 
containing  these  sight  words.  It  is  synthetic  in  spirit 
and  form.  A  story  method  that  is  really  a  story 
method  is  analytic.  It  begins  with  a  large  idea, 
then  teaches  to  read  the  smaller  ideas,  the  sentences, 
and  finally  the  words.  Another  limitation  is  found  in 
its  content,  which  is  traditional,  often  used  in  primers, 
and  lacking  in  variety,  since  the  majority  of  the  selec- 
tions are  nature  texts.  Only  country  children  have 
the  experience  for  a  full  comprehension  of  such  stories. 
Various  other  reading  forms  ought  to  be  intro- 
duced. Finally,  we  must  mention  the  incomplete  treat- 
ment of  phonetics,  for  no  mention  is  made  of  ear 
training  and  methods  of  leading  the  child  to  make 
phonic  analyses  and  syntheses.  The  method  is  thor- 
oughly modern  in  conception,  but  not  as  progressive 
in  its  actual  elaboration  as  its  underlying  theory  would 
lead  one  to  expect. 

The  Beacon  Headers.1— A  reading  system  which  ex- 
ceeds the  demands  of  all  formalists  in  reading  is  the 
method  in  the  Beacon  Readers.  Its  aim  is  "to  offer  a 
set  of  easy  reading  lessons,  worked  out  in  connection 
with  a  series  of  graded  exercises  in  phonetic  drill." 
The  purpose  of  these  reading  lessons  is  "to  acquire 
the  power  of  word  getting  and  word  mastery."  The 
author  of  this  method  finds  that  its  strength  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  follows  the  principles  laid  down  by  Noah 
Webster  in  his  "Spelling  Book." 

1  JAMES  H.  FASSETT.  The  Beacon  Readers.  Ginn  &  Co.,  1912, 
1914. 

22O 


APPENDIX 

Two  lines  of  work  are  developed  synchronously :  (a) 
exercises  to  develop  phonic  power,  and  (b)  exercises 
in  reading  by  words  and  sentences.  The  phonetic  tables 
are  developed  in  the  traditional  way  through  groups 
of  words  that  have  the  same  phonic  characteristics. 
Most  of  the  recent  reading  systems  strive  to  make  their 
work  in  phonics  an  outgrowth  of  words  and  rhymes 
learned  while  reading  interesting  content.  The  Beacon 
Readers,  however,  introduce  the  purely  formal  phase 
in  reading  by  teaching  phonograms  and  word-groups 
that  are  not  even  remotely  related  to  the  initial  reading 
lessons.  The  work  in  phonics  is,  therefore,  an  inde- 
pendent part  of  the  reading  system,  deriving  no  sig- 
nificance from  the  reading  text  and  contributing  noth- 
ing to  the  power  to  read  new  words  in  the  successive 
lessons  in  the  Primer. 

The  actual  reading  is  taught  by  a  look-and-say  proc- 
ess, through  words  and  sentences.  The  content  is 
artificial  beyond  description,  and  is  composed  of  an 
irritating  round  of  meaningless  repetitions.  Page  after 
page  runs  on  with  the  following  prattle :  "See  Mamma, 
See  kitty.  Mamma  see  kitty.  Kitty  see  mamma.  See 
kitty,  mamma.  My  kitty.  See  my  kitty.  See  my 
kitty,  mamma.  See  mamma.  See  mamma,  kitty.  I 
have  a  kitty.  I  have  a  kitty,  mamma.  Mamma,  I  have 
a  kitty."  This  short  verbatim  quotation  gives  no  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  stupefying  literary  diet  that  is  served 
to  the  children  as  a  means  of  arousing  dynamic  interest 
in  reading. 

Judged  by  every  modern  standard,  and  subjected  to- 
221 


APPENDIX 

the  analysis  that  is  suggested  for  the  study  of  any 
reading  system,  the  Beacon  Readers  fail.  Any  system 
of  reading  that  is  inspired  by  Noah  Webster's  "Spell- 
ing Book"  is  distinctly  out  of  harmony  with  the  child's 
interests,  and  is  at  variance  with  the  best  pedagogical 
practices  and  traditions  in  the  teaching  of  reading. 

The  Riverside  Readers.1 — An  unusual  development  of 
a  reading  system  is  found  in  the  Riverside  Readers. 
The  authors  set  out  to  compile  a  series  of  readers  that 
would  embody  such  literature  as  would  cultivate  a  lit- 
erary sense  and  develop  the  reading  habit  in  children. 
It  seems  that  originally  no  specific  reading  system 
governed  the  early  books,  so  that  a  teacher  might 
evolve  any  method — word,  sentence,  or  story — and  use 
it  to  teach  reading  to  her  class.  The  great  danger  in 
compiling  reading  material  for  a  primer  or  a  first 
reader  is  that  the  content  is  often  made  to  fit  a  spe- 
cific idea  or  a  fixed  need.  The  text  is  often  modified 
to  include  words  that  rhyme  or  that  are  built  on  the 
same  phonogram.  The  Riverside  Readers  were  con- 
ceived in  the  hope  of  gathering  properly  graded  litera- 
ture for  the  successive  grades  of  the  elementary  school 
course.  Had  the  original  plan  prevailed,  an  intelligent 
method  could  have  been  evolved  to  teach  children  to 
read  the  First  Reader.  The  Primer  is  a  superfluity, 
which  needlessly  introduces  elements  of  weakness.  The 
content  of  the  First  Reader  is  a  skilful  compilation  of 
nursery  rhymes,  nature  stories,  cumulative  tales,  and 

1  VAN  SICKLE,  SEEGMILLER  AND  JENKINS.  The  Riverside  Read- 
ers. Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  1911  and  1913. 

222 


APPENDIX 

simple  poetry.  The  Primer,  however,  descends  to  the 
oft-condemned  round  of 

One  little  egg  Hop 

Two  little  eggs  Hop,  little  bird, 

Three  little  eggs  Hop,  little  bird, 

I  see  three  little  eggs  Hop  to  me. 

Pages  Page  4 

One  little  bird  Fly 

Two  little  birds  Fly,  little  bird, 

Three  little  birds  Fly,  little  bird, 

I  see  three  little  birds  Fly  to  me. 

Page  5  Page  6 

Sing 

Sing,  little  bird, 
Sing,  little  bird, 
Sing  to  me. 

Page  7 

The  system  suggested  for  teaching  children  to  read 
is  a  combination  of  word  and  phrase  method  so  often 
used.  It  has  been  fully  described  in  the  discussions 
of  other  methods.  The  work  in  phonics  follows  tra- 
ditional lines. 

The  series  of  readers,  excluding  the  Primer,  is 
interesting,  rich  in  varied  literary  content,  artis- 
tic in  illustration,  and  developed  around  rational 
centers  and  with  due  regard  to  gradation.  These 
are  qualities  which  commend  them  to  teachers 
and  which  explain  gratifying  response  by  pupils. 

223 


APPENDIX 

"How  to  Teach  Reading,"  by  Frances  Jenkins,  is 
a  helpful  manual,  designed  to  accompany  the  River- 
side Readers. 

The  See  and  Say  Series.1 — i.  Basic  Aim. — A  reading 
system  which  has  the  courage  to  formulate  a  severely 
formal  method  is  the  See  and  Say  Series.  Its  under- 
lying purpose  is  to  enable  children  to  master  form  and 
sound  of  words.  It  holds  that  the  basis  of  all  reading 
is  independent  recognition  of  new  words.  To  attain 
this  end,  all  energies  are  bent  on  teaching  children  the 
sounds  of  letters  as  the  key  to  accurate  pronunciation 
and  spelling.  The  method  is  thoroughly  formal,  de- 
void of  all  content,  and  synthetic  in  spirit  and  develop- 
ment. 

2.  The  Development  of  the  Method. — Each  sound 
m  the  English  language  is  represented  by  a  picture  that 
tends  to  suggest  it.  Children  come  to  school  able  to 
produce  certain  mimetic  sounds:  they  moo  like  the 
cow,  choo!  choo!  like  the  engine,  and  manifest  other 
onomatopoetic  abilities.  The  children  are  taught  to 
associate  the  sound  of  m,  for  example,  with  a  story 
and  a  picture  of  a  mooing  cow,  with  the  first  letter  of 
moon,  and  with  the  symbol  m.  Thus,  first,  the  child 
sees  a  picture  of  a  cow  looking  longingly  at  the  calves 
on  the  other  side  of  a  stone  fence.  The  teacher  tells 
them  an  appropriate  story  suggested  by  this  picture. 
Second,  the  child  associates  the  picture  with  the  sound 
of  m.  Third,  the  sound  is  now  associated  with  the  let- 

1  SARAH  LOUISE  ARNOLD,  ELIZABETH  C.  BONNEY  AND  E.  F. 
SOUTHWORTH.  See  and  Say  Series.  Ginn  &  Co.,  1915. 

224 


APPENDIX 

ter.  Fourth,  drill  is  given  on  this  phonic  element,  and 
children  are  led  to  realize  that  other  words  begin  with 
the  same  sound.  The  lesson  is  capped  by  a  "Key 
Sentence."  The  children  now  recite,  "The  cow  says 
m,  and  m  is  the  first  letter  of  moon"  In  similar  man- 
ner, other  lessons  are  ended  by  teaching  children  such 
key  sentences  as :  "When  a  baby  wants  an  apple  he 
says  a,  and  a  is  the  first  sound  of  apple."  When 
the  popcorn  sticks  in  the  boy's  throat  he  says  c 
[hard  c],  and  c  is  the  first  sound  of  cat"  "Mother 
says  sh  when  baby  is  asleep,  and  sh  is  the  first 
sound  of  shell." 

3.  The  Reading  Content  of  the  See  and  Say  Series. 
— One  searches  in  vain  for  literary  content  in  this 
reading  system.  In  the  Manual  to  Book  I  we  are 
told  that  Book  I  is  a  picture  book,  and  teaches  the 
alphabet  and  the  ordinary  sounds  of  letters;  "Book  II 
reviews  and  summarizes  the  lessons  of  Book  I  and 
introduces  the  long  vowels,  silent  e,  and  the  third  sound 
of  a,  e,  i,  o  and  u" ;  "in  Book  III,  definite  steps  are 
taken  to  fix  right  habits  in  spelling  and  to  use  effec- 
tively to  this  end  all  that  has  been  taught  in  Book  I  and 
Book  II.  ...  All  lessons  which  do  not  present  a  new 
sound  provide  drill  upon  sounds  already  learned. "  The 
Manuals,  which  outline  in  detail  the  mode  of  teaching 
every  lesson  in  all  the  books,  state  the  formal  aims  of 
each  reading  lesson.  Typical  of  these  aims  are  the 
following :  "To  teach  short  sound  of  u,  to  give  added 
drill  on  the  phonogram  ing  and  final  s."  Page  27  of 
Book  I  presents  the  following  appearance : 

225 


APPENDIX 


Picture 

of 
Bee  and  Hives 


Picture 

of 
Zebra 


Zebra 


Zebra 


Zebra 


Page  137,  which  almost  ends  the  Second  Reader, 
has  in  store  for  the  child  the  rare  delight  which  comes 
from  the  perusal  of 


a 

a 

e 

a 

apple 

can 

£ 

e 

£gg 

net 

i 

w 

i 

ink 

pin 

6 

6 

orange 

not 

u 

u 

umbrella 

cub 

a 

cane 

e 

mete 

1 

pine 

o 

note 

u 

cube 

226 


star 

e 

her 

i 

bird 

o 

work 

ur 

curl 


u 

a 

wall 

a 

caw 


APPENDIX 

These  pages  are  typical  of  the  mechanical  word 
reading  and  the  fetish  of  sound  mastery  that  per- 
meates every  line  of  this  reading  system. 

4.  The  Phonics. — Despite  the  fact  that  phonics  is  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  this  method,  it  contributes 
nothing  new  or  helpful   in  this   important  part  of 
early  reading.     The  procedures  suggested  are  those 
found  in  the  earliest  methods.    It  perpetuates  the  tra- 
ditional blunders  in  the  teaching  of  phonics;  it  forces 
children  to  read  A-lice  for  Alice,  in  order  to  isolate 
the  letter  a;  it  is  devoid  of  all  ear  training;  it  synthe- 
sizes phonograms  into  groups  of  letters  that  are  either 
no  words  at  all  or  very  unusual  words;  it  makes  the 
mistakes  found  in  the  methods  of  young  teachers  who 
are  slowly  learning  the  error  of  their  ways  at  their 
pupils'  expense.     Most  of  its  devices  were  used  by 
Ickelsamer  in  1534,  and  by  Basedow  in  his  "Philan- 
thropinum,"    in   the    early   part    of    the   nineteenth 
century. 

5.  General  Estimate  of  the  See  and  Say  Series.—* 
From  this  rapid  survey  we  see  that  this  reading  method 
is  arrogantly  formal  and  boastful  of  its  utter  neglect 
of  literary  content.     If  the  primary  law  of  teaching 
is  to  begin  any  subject,  "at  the  point  of  contact,"  in 
the  lives  and  interests  of  our  pupils,  this  reading  system 
falls  far  from  the  ideal.    It  is  utterly  devoid  of  motive 
and  sympathy  for  child  life.    Not  a  story  nor  a  rhyme 
enlivens  its  dull  phonic  work.    These  readers  and  their 
elaborate  manuals  formulate  a  complicated  spelling 
method  rather  than  a  reading  system.     Unless  the 

227 


APPENDIX 

phonic  elements  can  be  made  the  natural  outgrowths 
of  pleasing  and  literary  content,  reading  is  not  a  proc- 
ess of  thought  acquisition,  intelligent  reading  habits 
are  not  developed,  and  the  child's  interest  in  reading 
will  be  crushed. 

Story  Hour  Headers.1 — Governing  Aim. — A  reading 
system  that  is  attracting  much  attention  today  among 
primary  teachers  is  the  Story  Hour  Readers.  This  sys- 
tem is  conceived  in  the  endeavor  "to  establish  a  reading 
habit  early  in  life"  through  reading  matter  of  charm 
and  traditional  literary  worth.  Much  use  is  made  of 
Mother  Goose  rhymes  and  folk  tales,  which  are  pre- 
sented in  a  manner  designed  to  appeal  to  the  child's 
love  for  action  and  dramatization.  But  the  jingle 
which  precedes  most  of  the  reading  lessons  in  the 
first  and  second  books  is  designed  to  introduce  the 
work  in  phonetics.  As  is  the  case  in  so  many  of  the 
new  reading  systems,  the  strength  of  the  Story  Hour 
method  lies  in  its  eclectic  character. 

The  Procedure  in  the  Method. — i.  Telling  the  Story. 
— The  teacher  tells  the  first  story  to  her  class,  using 
the  words  of  the  text  in  the  book.  The  story  is  care- 
fully prepared  so  that  the  teacher  knows  what  points 
to  emphasize,  what  parts  to  dramatize,  and  where  to 
call  to  her  aid  the  devices  that  make  story  telling  effec- 
tive. 

2.  The  Dramatization. — Through  dramatizations, 
games,  rote  songs,  and  repetitions  of  the  jingle,  the 

*COE  ANB  CHRISTIE.     Story  Hour  Readers.     American  Book 
Co.,  1913- 

228 


APPENDIX 

memorization  of  the  introductory  text  is  made  inci- 
dental. The  children  focus  their  interest  in  the  motor 
expressions,  in  the  various  forms  of  play,  and  in  the 
song,  but  the  set  text  is,  nevertheless,  effectively  memo- 
rized. 

3.  Blackboard  Work. — The  children  are  now  ready 
to  read  their  story  from  the  blackboard.  The  teacher 
prints  it  for  them,  so  that  the  mastery  of  the  visual 
symbol  may  lead  directly  to  reading  from  the  book. 
The  teacher  asks  questions  which  require  for  their 
answer  the  reading  of  one  line  of  the  Mother  Goose 
rhyme.  The  teacher's  blackboard  work  shows  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Little  Bo  Peep  lost  her  sheep, 
She  looked  and  looked 

but  could  not  find  them. 
Then  she  went 

to  Little  Jack  Homer. 

"Please,  Little  Jack  Homer, 

help  me  find  my  sheep !" 
Little  Jack  Horner 

sat  in  a  corner. 

The  teacher  asks,  "What  did  Little  Bo  Peep  lose?" 
and  the  child  reads  the  first  line,  "Little  Bo  Peep  lost 
her  sheep."  This  procedure  is  followed  to  teach  the 
class  to  read  the  entire  lesson.  In  the  children's  read- 
ing, especial  endeavor  is  made  to  lead  them  to  read 
each  sentence  as  a  unit,  to  emphasize  the  important 
words  and  word-groups,  to  help  them  read  the  entire 
text  as  a  larger  unit. 

229 


APPENDIX 

4.  The  'Analysis. — This  reading  method  does  not 
seek  to  give  children  a  mastery  of  all  the  words  in  the 
first  lesson  before  going  to  the  second,  for  such  thor- 
oughness is  usually  fatal.  The  child  is  taught  only 
such  words  as  represent  real  ideas,  or  as  will  readily 
associate  themselves  in  the  children's  minds.  To  re- 
strain the  class  from  reading  new  matter  until  every 
word  is  known  kills  interest  in  the  story  and  in  the  art 
of  reading  itself.  The  analysis  consists  of  three  parts, 
viz:  (a)  recognition  of  phrases,  (b)  recognition  of 
certain  words,  and  (c)  phonetics. 

(a)  Recognition  of  phrases:    Children  are  taught  to 
recognize  word-groups  like  looked  and  looked,  then 
she  went  before  learning  to  recognize  a  single  word. 
The  teacher  asks  questions  which  require  for  the  an- 
swer the  reading  of  a  group  of  words  in  the  sentence. 
Thus,  the  class  is  asked,  "What  did  Little  Bo  Peep 
do?"  and  the  children  answer  tf looked  and  looked" 
and  are  taught  the  group  of  words  that  expresses  this 
idea. 

(b)  Recognition  of  words:    The  power  to  recog- 
nize individual  words  is  developed  by  using  the  known 
phrases  and  expressions  as  a  basis.    The  usual  method 
of  accomplishing  this  end  is  followed,  but  this  method 
offers  a  series  of  devices  that  may  be  used  in  almost 
any  content  system.    Chief  among  these  we  must  men- 
tion: 

I.  A  race.    Three  children  hunt  in  three  different 
columns  for  a  given  word,  to  see  who  can  find 
it  and  pronounce  it  first. 
230 


APPENDIX 

Little  Bo  Peep  lost 

Bo  Peep  sheep  sheep 

sheep  Little  Bo  Peep 

lost  lost  Little 

2.  The  words  are  numbered.     The  teacher  calls  a 

number,  and  the  child  reads  the  appropriate 
word,  or  she  gives  the  word  and  the  pupil  tells 
its  number. 

3.  Words  found  are  underscored  in  colored  crayon. 

4.  Words  called  for  by  the  teacher  are  erased  by 

the  pupil. 

These  exercises  can  be  increased  almost  without  end. 
They  are  given  until  the  words  selected  can  be  recog- 
nized instantly  by  the  pupils. 

(c)  Phonetics:  From  the  very  beginning,  this  read- 
ing system  seeks  to  give  each  pupil  ability  to  recognize 
new  words.  Work  in  formal  phonetics  begins  early, 
and  is  initiated  by  systematic  training  for  auditory 
acuity.  Ear  training  is  given  by  various  devices  that 
are  very  rational  and  effective.  Many  of  these,  es- 
pecially those  that  emphasize  rhyming,  grouping 
similar  initial  and  final  sounds,  have  already  been 
described. 

After  enough  ear  training  has  been  given,  words 
that  are  known  as  sight  words  are  subjected  to  phonetic 
analysis  by  comparing  them  to  other  words  that  have 
the  same  initial  and  final  sounds.  Thus,  find  recalls  fty, 
found,  hence  find  teaches  /;  call  recalls  ball,  tall,  hall, 
hence  call  teaches  all.  The  usual  analysis  of  find  into 

231 


APPENDIX 

/  and  ind,  call  into  c  and  all,  is  not  tolerated,  for  in 
actual  speech  no  such  artificial  separation  is  tolerated. 
This  phonetic  step  is  concluded  by  the  constructive 
step,  the  blend,  in  which  new  words  are  read  phoneti- 
cally by  a  synthesis  of  known  phonograms.  Through- 
out this  phase  of  the  work,  phonics  is  sought  through 
the  child's  inherent  sense  of  rhyme  and  rhythm. 

5.  Reading  the  Story  as  a  Whole  from  the  Book. — 
The  book  is  now  given  to  the  children,  and  with  the 
aid  of  large  printed  charts  they  read  the  story  from 
the  page.  Drill  is  given  in  recognizing  phrases  and 
words  as  a  preparation  for  the  silent  and  then  the  oral 
reading  of  the  selection  as  a  whole. 

Useful  Seat  Work  and  Correlation. — The  Story  Hour 
Readers  have  a  full  complement  of  auxiliary  equip- 
ment. Various  materials  for  useful  busy  work  and 
for  drills  are  provided.  This  variety  includes  trac- 
ing, cutting,  and  mounting  pictures  of  sheep,  etc. 
Freehand  drawing,  imaginary  drawing,  matching 
words  on  small  cards  with  forms  on  the  blackboard 
are  emphasized.  Perception  cards,  objects,  pictures, 
outline  forms  of  animals  and  people,  charts,  etc.,  are 
among  the  elaborate  equipment  designed  to  afford 
natural  drill  and  reduce  knowledge  of  symbols  to 
habit.  In  addition  to  this  equipment,  the  method  pro- 
vides for  a  rich  variety  of  correlations  with  nature 
study,  manual  training,  music,  mimetic  and  occupa- 
tional exercises,  play  and  drawing. 

General  Estimate. — The  books  that  are  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  children  are  artistic  in  illustration  and 

232 


APPENDIX 

design,  and  offer  literary  content  more  varied  than  in 
the  average  reading  system.  The  progress  that  is 
made  is  rapid,  but  graded  so  that  each  step  gives  the 
child  a  thorough  foundation  on  which  he  builds  grow- 
ing knowledge  and  increasing  power.  The  method 
owes  much  of  its  effectiveness  to  its  skilful  inclusion 
of  the  worth-while  principles  and  devices  of  the  best 
systems  of  primary  reading,  and  to  its  rational  balance 
between  the  literary  and  the  mechanical  elements  that 
make  up  a  reading  method  for  the  introductory  school 
years. 

The  Natural  Method  Readers.1 — A  Typical  Story 
Method. — A  reading  method  possessed  of  the  same 
aims  as  the  Story  Hour  Method  is  the  Natural  Method 
Readers  by  Hannah  T.  McManus  and  John  H.  Haaren. 
It,  too,  endeavors  to  develop  the  art  of  reading,  of 
extracting  thought  from  the  printed  page  by  presenting 
a  content  exclusively  of  nursery  rhymes.  These  are 
divided  into  two  groups:  (i)  Those  that  are  more 
complex  in  content,  and  possessed  of  a  greater  number 
of  new  words,  and  must,  therefore,  be  taken  up  on  a 
number  of  pages;  (2)  those  that  are  so  simple  as  to 
require  no  such  extended  treatment.  Thus  the  child 
begins  its  reading  experience  by  memorizing. 

A,  B,  C, 
Tumble  Down  D 
The  cat  is  in  the  cupboard 
And  can't  see  me. 

*McMANus  AND  HAAREN.  The  Natural  Method  Readers. 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  1914. 

233 


APPENDIX 

This  is  followed  by  Jack  Horner,  Little  Miss  Muf~ 
fett,  and  the  round  of  familiar  people  of  Mother 
Goose's  family.  While  these  nursery  rhymes  form 
agreeable  and  rhythmic  content,  their  effectiveness  is 
reduced  by  making  them  the  sole  elements  in  the  early 
literary  text  to  the  exclusion  of  folk  tales  and  cumula- 
tive stories. 

The  Development  of  the  Method. — The  develop- 
ment of  the  method  of  teaching  children  to  read  fol- 
lows the  familiar  sequence,  viz. : 

1.  Recitation  by  the  teacher; 

2.  .Repetition  by  the  pupils ; 

3.  Dramatization  by  the  pupils ; 

4.  Study  of  the  words  of  the  lesson; 

5.  Reading  from  the  blackboard  or  from  the  books 

after  three  or  four  nursery  rhymes  have 
been  read  from  the  board. 

The  Teaching  of  Phonics. — The  work  in  phonics 
follows  lines  equally  familiar  to  those  who  know  the 
commonly  accepted  development  of  the  mechanics  of 
reading.  The  authors  prescribe  work  in  phonics  that 
is  an  outgrowth  of  the  stock  of  reading  words  which 
the  children  possess.  This  advice  is  followed  by  the 
usual  round  of  "slow  pronunciation,  analysis,  recogni- 
tion of  separate  phonograms,  combination  or  synthesis, 
and  comparison  with  sounds  as  they  occur  in  the 
words." 

General  Estimate  of  Natural  Method  Readers. — The 
faults  of  this  reading  system  lie  more  in  its  omissions 
than  in  its  commissions.  It  lacks  variety  of  reading 

234 


APPENDIX 

material,  and  its  mode  of  giving  reviews  must  be  criti- 
cized as  content  weakness.  The  authors  have  inserted 
these  reviews  at  frequent  intervals,  and  have  endeav- 
ored to  evolve  a  story  form  for  them.  But  the  re- 
views that  are  actually  given  are  a  series  of  disjointed 
sentences,  devoid  of  sequence  and  story  element,  and 
usually  are  in  marked  contrast  to  the  pleasant  and 
rhythmic  jingles  that  constitute  the  remainder  of  the 
reading  text.  Teachers  find  the  reading  system  lacking 
in  forms  of  profitable  busy  work  that  must  be  given 
to  one  group  while  the  teacher  gives  herself  to  another 
set  of  pupils.  This  method  does  not  point  out  to  the 
inexperienced  teacher  the  rich  correlations  that  must 
be  established  with  music,  games,  drawings,  nature 
study  and  manual  work  throughout  the  teaching  of 
early  reading.  Nor  are  there  suggested  devices  for 
securing  expressive  renditions,  for  developing  power 
to  associate  thought  and  symbol,  or  for  conducting 
exercises  in  silent  reading.  No  mention  is  made  of 
the  necessary  ear  training  that  must  precede  the  work 
in  phonics.  Judged  as  a  series  of  readers,  rather  than 
as  a  reading  system,  most  of  the  limitations  are  beside 
the  mark.  A  system  of  readers  assumes  that  the 
teacher  knows  the  modus  operandi,  and  needs  no  pre- 
scriptions and  devices  dealing  with  these  problems  in 
teaching  beginners  to  read.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
Natural  Method  Reader  to  exclude  the  most  approved 
and  the  most  effective  practices.  But  teachers  inex- 
perienced in  teaching  primary  reading  are  usually  in 
need  of  all  these  devices  and  exercises.  The  illustra- 

235 


APPENDIX 

tions  in  the  books  have  artistic  quality,  and  the  me- 
chanical elements  of  this  system  are,  in  the  main,  well 
planned  and  carefully  executed.  In  the  hands  of  a 
teacher  experienced  in  first  year  reading  work  and 
familiar  with  the  devices  of  her  craft,  this  system 
promises  effective  results. 


INDEX 


Adolescents      and      literary      Basedow,  39 


study,  167 
Aims,  of  reading,  I 

of  intensive  reading,  186 
of    intermediary    reading, 

126 

Aldine  Method,  66 
Allusions   in   literary  study, 

192 

Alphabetic  Method,  37 
Animal  stories,  84 
Apperception  in  reading,  129, 

174 
See    also    Preparation    of 

class 

Arnold,  Sarah  L.,  6 
Articulation,  145 
Association   in   reading,  46, 

53 

Atonies,  104 
Author's     life     in     literary 

study,  171 

Balliet,  Thomas  M.,  26 

Basal  stories, 

in  Aldine  Method,  66 
in  Culture  Primers,  76 
in  McCloskey  Method,  51 
in  Progressive  Road,  76 


Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  123 
Blackboard  reading,  49 
Books,      hygienic      require- 
ments for,  13 
proper  paper  in,  15 
proper  size  of,  15 
standardization  of,  16 
Bryant,  Sarah  Cone,  100 
Buno,  39 

Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott, 
6,  35»  57.  ioo,  205 

Character  interpretation,  184 

Character  value  of  master- 
pieces, 167 

Chubb,  Percival,  35,  100,  158 

Clark,  S.  H.,  158 

Class  libraries,  156 

Clearness  in  reading,  145 

Coe  and  Christie,  81,  123 

Cohen,  H.,  16 

Colby,  J.  R,  6 

Comenius,  49 

Comparisons  in  reading,  152 

Consonants,   104 

Content,  in  phonic  work,  114 
of  primers,  83 

Content  aim  in  reading,  32 


237 


INDEX 


Correction  of  reading,  149 

Corson,  Hiram,  205 

Criticism  of  class  reading, 
149 

Culture  epoch  and  post- 
ponement of  reading, 
29 

Culture  Primers,  76 

Cumulative  tales,  85 
See  also  McCloskey  Meth- 
od; Progressive  Road 
Method 

Davis  and  Julien,  70 
Dearborn,  W.  F.,  26 
Dewey,  John,  27,  35 
Diacritical  marks,  1 08 
Dictionary,  192 
Dramatization,  147,  189,  198, 

199 
See  also  Primary  methods 

of  reading 
Dresslar,  T.  B.,  16,  123 

Elaboration  in  reading,  150 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  3 

Emotional     preparation,     in 

masterpiece,  172 
in  reading  lesson,  132 

Enunciation,  145 

Ethical  value  of  master- 
piece, 167 

Eye  fatigue,  n 

Eye  movement  in  reading,  7 

Eye  sweeps  in  reading,  7 


Examination  for  power,  201, 

202 

Expression,  146 
Extensive  reading,  154 

Fables,  84 
Fairy  tales,  84 
Farnham,  48 
Farnham  Method,  48 
Finger-play  method,  70 
First  reading  in  masterpiece, 

174 
Formal  aim  in  reading,  32 

Generalization     in    reading, 

152 
Goldwasser,  I.  E.,  6,  57,  100, 

124,  158,  205 
Gordom,  Emma  K.,  Method, 

39,  60 
Group  teaching,  in  phonics, 

"5 
in  reading,  156 

Haliburton  and  Smith,  158 
Hall,  G.  Stanley,  4,  57,  138 
Hervey  and  Hix,  73,  124 
Horace  Mann  system,  73 
Hosic,    James    F.,    35,    100, 

205 
Huey,  Ed.  B.,  6,  16,  26,  35, 

57,  81,  100 

on  oral  reading,  139 
on  rate  in  reading,  19 
on  reading  method,  50 


238 


INDEX 


Huey,  Ed.  B.,  on  when  to 
begin  to  read,  27 

Hughes,  James  L.,  81,  139 

Hygienic  reasoning  for  post- 
poning reading,  27 

Hygienic  requirements  for 
books,  13 

Ickelsamer  and  phonic  drill, 

39 

Illustrations  in  readers,  86 

Illustrative  material  in  liter- 
ary study,  193 

Imagination,  education  of, 
166 

Imitation,  120 

Inner  speech  in  reading,  17 

Intellectual  value  of  master- 
piece, 165 

Intensive  reading  lessons, 
procedure  in,  136 

Intensive   study   of   master- 
piece, 181 
aims  of,  186 

division     of     masterpiece 

into  selections  for,  181 

study   of   selection    for, 

182 
what  to  choose  in,  183 

Jacotot,  49 
Jansenites,  39 
Jones,  Dora  D.,  124 


Kenyon-Warner,  Ellen,  76 


Laing,  Mary  E.,  6,  26,  35, 

57,  81,  100,  158 
on  oral  reading,  139 
on  silent  reading,  138 
on  when  to  begin,  27 

Language  lessons  in  reading, 

54,  77 

Levine,  Michael,  124 

Light,   13 

Lines,  length  of,  15 

Lip  reading,  17 

Literature,  place  of,  in  ele- 
mentary school,  3,  159 

McClintock,  P.  L.,  6 
McCloskey  Method,  51 
McManus  and  Haaren,  81 
McMurry,  Charles  A.,  57,  81, 

158,  205 

on  reading  method,  50 
on  when  to  begin  reading, 

27 
Masterpiece,    place    of,     in 

school,  161 
Masterpiece  values,  164 

See  also  Intensive  study  of 
Mechanical    aids    in    speech 

correction,  121 
Memorization  and  recitation, 

199 

Messmer,  on  inner  speech,  17 
Mispronunciations,    habitual 

causes  of,  117 
remedial     measures     for, 

119 


239 


INDEX 


Models   of   oral   expression, 

150,  191 
Moralization  in  story-telling, 

99 

Moses,  Montrose  J.,  100 
Motivation  in  phonics,   113, 

120 
Mount,  Christiana,  62,  81 

Natural  Method,  76 

Natural  Method  Readers, 
81 

Nature  stories,  84 

New  Education  Method,  62 

New  England  Primer,  82 

New  words  in  reading  les- 
sons, 130 

Nursery  rhymes,  83 

Optic  fatigue,  II 
Organs   of   speech,   descrip- 
tion of,  103 
undue     emphasis     on,     in 

phonic  work,  115 
Oral  composition,  in  litera- 
ture, 200 

in  reading  lesson,  151 
Oral   reading,   clearness   in, 

145 
in     intermediary     grades, 

139 

overemphasis  of,  23 
place  of,  in  school  courses, 

2 

processes  in,  7 


Oral    reading,    standard   of 

judging,  142 
O'Shea,  M.  V.,  20,  26 

Paper,  proper  kind  of,  for 
books,  15 

Partridge,  E.  N.  and  G.  E., 
100 

Pedagogical  consideration 
for  postponing  read- 
ing, 30 

Pestalozzi,  39 

Phonic  Method,  38,  41 

Phonics,  in  Aldine  Method, 

69 

definitions  of,  103 
in     Finger-play     Method, 

71 

in  Gordon  Method,  61 
in  Horace  Mann  Method, 

75 

in  McCloskey  Method,  54 
in  New  Education  Method, 

62 

objects  of,  102 
in  Pollard  Method,  62 
in  preparation  for  reading 

lesson,  129 

in  Progressive  Road  Meth- 
od, 77 

in  Summers  Method,  65 
in  Ward  Method,  45 
Phonograms,  analysis  of 

modes  of,  in 
blends  in,  112,  113 


240 


INDEX 


Phonograms,    gradation    of, 

109 

teaching  of,  no 
Phrasing,  147 
See    also    Dramatization ; 
Primary    methods    of 
reading 

Plot    structure    in    master- 
piece, 194 
Pollard    Synthetic    Method, 

61 
Preparation,     of    class    for 

reading,  129 
for  reading  lesson,  128 
by  teachers  for  phonic  les- 
son, no 
Primary   reading,   A 1  dine 

Method  in,  66 
Alphabetic   Method   in, 

37 
essentials  of  a  modern 

method  in,  43 
Farnham  Method  in,   48 
Finger-play  Method  in, 

70 

Gordon  Method  in,  60 
Horace  Mann  Method  in, 

73 
how  to  judge  a  method  of, 

78-80 
McCloskey   Method   in, 

51 

Natural  Method  in,  81 
New     Education     Method 

in,  62 


Primary    reading,    Phonetic 

Method  in,  41 
Phonic  Method  in,  38 
Pollard  Method  in,  61 
Progressive  Road  Method 

of,  75 
Story    Hour    Method    in, 

81 

Summers  Method  in,  63 
Ward  Method  in,  44 
Primer,  content  of,  83 
development  of,  82 
good  characteristics  of,  82 
illustrations  for,  86 
mechanics  of,  87 
Print  or  script  at  beginning, 

46,  53 

Progressive  Road  to  Read- 
ing, 75 
Pronunciation,  definition  of, 

145 

correction  of,  117,  119 
Psychological  considerations 
for   postponing    read- 
ing, 27 

Quantz,  on  rate  in  reading, 

20 

Questions,  in  intensive  read- 
ing, 189 
in  tests,  203 

Rate     in     reading,     experi- 
ments in,  19 
relation  of,  to  thought,  18 


241 


INDEX 


Rate  in  reading,  significance 

of,  for  teaching,  22 
Readers,  displacement  of,  in 
upper  grades,  162 

illustrations  for,  86 

See  also  Primary  methods 
Reading,   aims   of,   32,   126, 
186 

in  teaching  of,  I 

apperception  in,  129,  174 

association  in,  46,  53 

blackboard  in,  49 

content  aim  of,  32 

correction  in,  149 

criticism  of,  149 

derivation  of  word  in,  I 

dramatization  in,  147,  189, 
198,  199 

elaboration  in,  150 

emotional  preparation   in, 
132,  172 

expression  in,  146,  150 

extensive,  154 

eye  movement  in,  7 

formal  aims  of,  32 

generalization  in,  152 

inner  speech  in,  17 

intensive,  136,  181 

intermediary,  125 

lip  movement  in,  17 

literary  appreciation  in,  3 

optic  fatigue  in,  n 

oral  vs.  silent,  139 

place  of  oral.    See   Oral 
reading 


Reading,  preparation  of  class 

for,  128 
preparation  of  teacher  for, 

129 
primary  methods  of.    See 

Primary  reading 
primers.    See  Primer 
print  or   script   at  begin- 
ning, 46,  53 
problems  involved,  4 
procedure  of,  in  interme- 
diary grades,  135 
to  pupils,  89 
rate  and  thought  in,  18 
silent,  137 
speed  in,  19 

thought  acquisition  in,  I,  2 
use  of  selection  as  a  whole 

in,  136 

when  to  begin,  27 
Reading  lists.    See  Bibliog- 
raphy, Chap.  VII 
Reeder,  R.  R.,  100 
Re-reading  of  lesson,  153 
Re-reading  of  pupils'  assign- 
ments, 150 
Rousseau,  39 

St.  John,  Ed.  P.,  101 
Scripture,  E.  W.,  124 
Second  reading   of   master- 
piece.    See   Intensive 
study 

Sentence  Method,  36,  48,  50, 
66,  70,  73 


242 


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